Remove almost all unpaired backticks

As reported in #117847 and #115366, an unpaired backtick in a docstring
tends to confuse e.g. Sphinx running on subclasses of standard library
objects, and the typographic style of using a backtick as an opening
quote is no longer in favor. Convert almost all uses of the form

    The variable `foo' should do xyz

to

    The variable 'foo' should do xyz

and also fix up miscellaneous other unpaired backticks (extraneous /
missing characters).

No functional change is intended here other than in human-readable
docstrings, error messages, etc.

I've left ./configure and friends alone because that isn't going to
impact downstream tools and feels like a lot of churn.

Doc/Makefile

@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ ALLSPHINXOPTS = -b $(BUILDER) \
 
 .PHONY: help
 help:
-	@echo "Please use \`make <target>' where <target> is one of"
+	@echo "Please use 'make <target>' where <target> is one of"
 	@echo "  clean      to remove build files"
 	@echo "  venv       to create a venv with necessary tools"
 	@echo "  html       to make standalone HTML files"
@@ -90,7 +90,7 @@ htmlhelp: build
 latex: BUILDER = latex
 latex: build
 	@echo "Build finished; the LaTeX files are in build/latex."
-	@echo "Run \`make all-pdf' or \`make all-ps' in that directory to" \
+	@echo "Run 'make all-pdf' or 'make all-ps' in that directory to" \
 	      "run these through (pdf)latex."
 
 .PHONY: text
@@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ text: build
 texinfo: BUILDER = texinfo
 texinfo: build
 	@echo "Build finished; the python.texi file is in build/texinfo."
-	@echo "Run \`make info' in that directory to run it through makeinfo."
+	@echo "Run 'make info' in that directory to run it through makeinfo."
 
 .PHONY: epub
 epub: BUILDER = epub
@@ -167,7 +167,7 @@ clean-venv:
 venv:
 	@if [ -d $(VENVDIR) ] ; then \
 		echo "venv already exists."; \
-		echo "To recreate it, remove it first with \`make clean-venv'."; \
+		echo "To recreate it, remove it first with 'make clean-venv'."; \
 	else \
 		echo "Creating venv in $(VENVDIR)"; \
 		$(PYTHON) -m venv $(VENVDIR); \

Include/internal/pycore_ceval.h

@@ -152,7 +152,7 @@ _PyEval_IsGILEnabled(PyThreadState *tstate)
 // Enable or disable the GIL used by the interpreter that owns tstate, which
 // must be the current thread. This may affect other interpreters, if the GIL
 // is shared. All three functions will be no-ops (and return 0) if the
-// interpreter's `enable_gil' config is not _PyConfig_GIL_DEFAULT.
+// interpreter's 'enable_gil' config is not _PyConfig_GIL_DEFAULT.
 //
 // Every call to _PyEval_EnableGILTransient() must be paired with exactly one
 // call to either _PyEval_EnableGILPermanent() or

Include/internal/pycore_obmalloc.h

@@ -163,7 +163,7 @@ typedef unsigned int pymem_uint;  /* assuming >= 16 bits */
  * things simpler, we assume that it is 4K, which is OK for most systems.
  * It is probably better if this is the native page size, but it doesn't
  * have to be.  In theory, if SYSTEM_PAGE_SIZE is larger than the native page
- * size, then `POOL_ADDR(p)->arenaindex' could rarely cause a segmentation
+ * size, then 'POOL_ADDR(p)->arenaindex' could rarely cause a segmentation
  * violation fault.  4K is apparently OK for all the platforms that python
  * currently targets.
  */

Lib/_pylong.py

@@ -285,7 +285,7 @@ def inner(n, w):
         if w <= BYTELIM:
             # XXX Stefan Pochmann discovered that, for 1024-bit ints,
             # `int(Decimal)` took 2.5x longer than `int(str(Decimal))`.
-            # Worse, `int(Decimal) is still quadratic-time for much
+            # Worse, `int(Decimal)` is still quadratic-time for much
             # larger ints. So unless/until all that is repaired, the
             # seemingly redundant `str(Decimal)` is crucial to speed.
             result.extend(int(str(n)).to_bytes(w)) # big-endian default

Lib/_pyrepl/commands.py

@@ -437,13 +437,13 @@ class invalid_key(Command):
     def do(self) -> None:
         pending = self.reader.console.getpending()
         s = "".join(self.event) + pending.data
-        self.reader.error("`%r' not bound" % s)
+        self.reader.error("'%r' not bound" % s)
 
 
 class invalid_command(Command):
     def do(self) -> None:
         s = self.event_name
-        self.reader.error("command `%s' not known" % s)
+        self.reader.error("command '%s' not known" % s)
 
 
 class show_history(Command):

Lib/_pyrepl/historical_reader.py

@@ -300,7 +300,7 @@ def prepare(self) -> None:
     def get_prompt(self, lineno: int, cursor_on_line: bool) -> str:
         if cursor_on_line and self.isearch_direction != ISEARCH_DIRECTION_NONE:
             d = "rf"[self.isearch_direction == ISEARCH_DIRECTION_FORWARDS]
-            return "(%s-search `%s') " % (d, self.isearch_term)
+            return "(%s-search '%s') " % (d, self.isearch_term)
         else:
             return super().get_prompt(lineno, cursor_on_line)
 

Lib/_pyrepl/keymap.py

@@ -28,8 +28,8 @@
 that if you can come up with a spec readline accepts that this
 doesn't, you've found a bug and should tell me about it).
 
-Note that this is the `\\C-o' style of readline keyspec, not the
-`Control-o' sort.
+Note that this is the '\\C-o' style of readline keyspec, not the
+'Control-o' sort.
 
 A keyspec is a string representing a sequence of keypresses that can
 be bound to a command.
@@ -42,14 +42,14 @@
 
 Examples:
 
-`a'     - what you get when you hit the `a' key
-`\\EOA'  - Escape - O - A (up, on my terminal)
-`\\<UP>' - the up arrow key
-`\\<up>' - ditto (keynames are case insensitive)
-`\\C-o', `\\c-o'  - control-o
-`\\M-.'  - meta-period
-`\\E.'   - ditto (that's how meta works for pyrepl)
-`\\<tab>', `\\<TAB>', `\\t', `\\011', '\\x09', '\\X09', '\\C-i', '\\C-I'
+'a'     - what you get when you hit the 'a' key
+'\\EOA'  - Escape - O - A (up, on my terminal)
+'\\<UP>' - the up arrow key
+'\\<up>' - ditto (keynames are case insensitive)
+'\\C-o', '\\c-o'  - control-o
+'\\M-.'  - meta-period
+'\\E.'   - ditto (that's how meta works for pyrepl)
+'\\<tab>', '\\<TAB>', '\\t', '\\011', '\\x09', '\\X09', '\\C-i', '\\C-I'
    - all of these are the tab character.  Can you think of any more?
 """
 
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ def _parse_key1(key, s):
             elif c == "c":
                 if key[s + 2] != "-":
                     raise KeySpecError(
-                        "\\C must be followed by `-' (char %d of %s)"
+                        "\\C must be followed by '-' (char %d of %s)"
                         % (s + 2, repr(key))
                     )
                 if ctrl:
@@ -136,7 +136,7 @@ def _parse_key1(key, s):
             elif c == "m":
                 if key[s + 2] != "-":
                     raise KeySpecError(
-                        "\\M must be followed by `-' (char %d of %s)"
+                        "\\M must be followed by '-' (char %d of %s)"
                         % (s + 2, repr(key))
                     )
                 if meta:
@@ -163,7 +163,7 @@ def _parse_key1(key, s):
                 ret = key[s + 2 : t].lower()
                 if ret not in _keynames:
                     raise KeySpecError(
-                        "unrecognised keyname `%s' at char %d of %s"
+                        "unrecognised keyname '%s' at char %d of %s"
                         % (ret, s + 2, repr(key))
                     )
                 ret = _keynames[ret]

Lib/_pyrepl/reader.py

@@ -167,15 +167,15 @@ class Reader:
       * console:
         Hopefully encapsulates the OS dependent stuff.
       * pos:
-        A 0-based index into `buffer' for where the insertion point
+        A 0-based index into 'buffer' for where the insertion point
         is.
       * screeninfo:
         Ahem.  This list contains some info needed to move the
         insertion point around reasonably efficiently.
       * cxy, lxy:
         the position of the insertion point in screen ...
       * syntax_table:
-        Dictionary mapping characters to `syntax class'; read the
+        Dictionary mapping characters to 'syntax class'; read the
         emacs docs to see what this means :-)
       * commands:
         Dictionary mapping command names to command classes.
@@ -403,7 +403,7 @@ def max_row(self) -> int:
 
     def get_arg(self, default: int = 1) -> int:
         """Return any prefix argument that the user has supplied,
-        returning `default' if there is None.  Defaults to 1.
+        returning 'default' if there is None.  Defaults to 1.
         """
         if self.arg is None:
             return default
@@ -412,7 +412,7 @@ def get_arg(self, default: int = 1) -> int:
 
     def get_prompt(self, lineno: int, cursor_on_line: bool) -> str:
         """Return what should be in the left-hand margin for line
-        `lineno'."""
+        'lineno'."""
         if self.arg is not None and cursor_on_line:
             prompt = "(arg: %s) " % self.arg
         elif self.paste_mode:

Lib/cmd.py

@@ -5,16 +5,16 @@
 1. End of file on input is processed as the command 'EOF'.
 2. A command is parsed out of each line by collecting the prefix composed
    of characters in the identchars member.
-3. A command `foo' is dispatched to a method 'do_foo()'; the do_ method
+3. A command 'foo' is dispatched to a method 'do_foo()'; the do_ method
    is passed a single argument consisting of the remainder of the line.
 4. Typing an empty line repeats the last command.  (Actually, it calls the
-   method `emptyline', which may be overridden in a subclass.)
-5. There is a predefined `help' method.  Given an argument `topic', it
-   calls the command `help_topic'.  With no arguments, it lists all topics
+   method 'emptyline', which may be overridden in a subclass.)
+5. There is a predefined 'help' method.  Given an argument 'topic', it
+   calls the command 'help_topic'.  With no arguments, it lists all topics
    with defined help_ functions, broken into up to three topics; documented
    commands, miscellaneous help topics, and undocumented commands.
-6. The command '?' is a synonym for `help'.  The command '!' is a synonym
-   for `shell', if a do_shell method exists.
+6. The command '?' is a synonym for 'help'.  The command '!' is a synonym
+   for 'shell', if a do_shell method exists.
 7. If completion is enabled, completing commands will be done automatically,
    and completing of commands args is done by calling complete_foo() with
    arguments text, line, begidx, endidx.  text is string we are matching
@@ -23,21 +23,21 @@
    indexes of the text being matched, which could be used to provide
    different completion depending upon which position the argument is in.
 
-The `default' method may be overridden to intercept commands for which there
+The 'default' method may be overridden to intercept commands for which there
 is no do_ method.
 
-The `completedefault' method may be overridden to intercept completions for
+The 'completedefault' method may be overridden to intercept completions for
 commands that have no complete_ method.
 
-The data member `self.ruler' sets the character used to draw separator lines
+The data member 'self.ruler' sets the character used to draw separator lines
 in the help messages.  If empty, no ruler line is drawn.  It defaults to "=".
 
-If the value of `self.intro' is nonempty when the cmdloop method is called,
+If the value of 'self.intro' is nonempty when the cmdloop method is called,
 it is printed out on interpreter startup.  This value may be overridden
 via an optional argument to the cmdloop() method.
 
-The data members `self.doc_header', `self.misc_header', and
-`self.undoc_header' set the headers used for the help function's
+The data members 'self.doc_header', 'self.misc_header', and
+'self.undoc_header' set the headers used for the help function's
 listings of documented functions, miscellaneous topics, and undocumented
 functions respectively.
 """

Lib/configparser.py

@@ -957,7 +957,7 @@ def write(self, fp, space_around_delimiters=True):
                                 self._sections[section].items(), d)
 
     def _write_section(self, fp, section_name, section_items, delimiter, unnamed=False):
-        """Write a single section to the specified `fp'."""
+        """Write a single section to the specified 'fp'."""
         if not unnamed:
             fp.write("[{}]\n".format(section_name))
         for key, value in section_items:

Lib/difflib.py

@@ -444,7 +444,7 @@ def get_matching_blocks(self):
         # This is most naturally expressed as a recursive algorithm, but
         # at least one user bumped into extreme use cases that exceeded
         # the recursion limit on their box.  So, now we maintain a list
-        # ('queue`) of blocks we still need to look at, and append partial
+        # ('queue') of blocks we still need to look at, and append partial
         # results to `matching_blocks` in a loop; the matches are sorted
         # at the end.
         queue = [(0, la, 0, lb)]

Lib/doctest.py

@@ -1227,7 +1227,7 @@ class DocTestRunner:
     `OutputChecker` to the constructor.
 
     The test runner's display output can be controlled in two ways.
-    First, an output function (`out) can be passed to
+    First, an output function (`out`) can be passed to
     `TestRunner.run`; this function will be called with strings that
     should be displayed.  It defaults to `sys.stdout.write`.  If
     capturing the output is not sufficient, then the display output
@@ -2734,7 +2734,7 @@ def testsource(module, name):
     return testsrc
 
 def debug_src(src, pm=False, globs=None):
-    """Debug a single doctest docstring, in argument `src`'"""
+    """Debug a single doctest docstring, in argument `src`"""
     testsrc = script_from_examples(src)
     debug_script(testsrc, pm, globs)
 

Lib/email/_parseaddr.py

@@ -224,7 +224,7 @@ class AddrlistClass:
     def __init__(self, field):
         """Initialize a new instance.
 
-        `field' is an unparsed address header field, containing
+        'field' is an unparsed address header field, containing
         one or more addresses.
         """
         self.specials = '()<>@,:;.\"[]'
@@ -233,7 +233,7 @@ def __init__(self, field):
         self.CR = '\r\n'
         self.FWS = self.LWS + self.CR
         self.atomends = self.specials + self.LWS + self.CR
-        # Note that RFC 2822 now specifies `.' as obs-phrase, meaning that it
+        # Note that RFC 2822 now specifies '.' as obs-phrase, meaning that it
         # is obsolete syntax.  RFC 2822 requires that we recognize obsolete
         # syntax, so allow dots in phrases.
         self.phraseends = self.atomends.replace('.', '')
@@ -423,14 +423,14 @@ def getdomain(self):
     def getdelimited(self, beginchar, endchars, allowcomments=True):
         """Parse a header fragment delimited by special characters.
 
-        `beginchar' is the start character for the fragment.
-        If self is not looking at an instance of `beginchar' then
+        'beginchar' is the start character for the fragment.
+        If self is not looking at an instance of 'beginchar' then
         getdelimited returns the empty string.
 
-        `endchars' is a sequence of allowable end-delimiting characters.
+        'endchars' is a sequence of allowable end-delimiting characters.
         Parsing stops when one of these is encountered.
 
-        If `allowcomments' is non-zero, embedded RFC 2822 comments are allowed
+        If 'allowcomments' is non-zero, embedded RFC 2822 comments are allowed
         within the parsed fragment.
         """
         if self.field[self.pos] != beginchar:
@@ -474,7 +474,7 @@ def getatom(self, atomends=None):
 
         Optional atomends specifies a different set of end token delimiters
         (the default is to use self.atomends).  This is used e.g. in
-        getphraselist() since phrase endings must not include the `.' (which
+        getphraselist() since phrase endings must not include the '.' (which
         is legal in phrases)."""
         atomlist = ['']
         if atomends is None:

Lib/email/_policybase.py

@@ -150,7 +150,7 @@ class Policy(_PolicyBase, metaclass=abc.ABCMeta):
                            wrapping is done.  Default is 78.
 
     mangle_from_        -- a flag that, when True escapes From_ lines in the
-                           body of the message by putting a `>' in front of
+                           body of the message by putting a '>' in front of
                            them. This is used when the message is being
                            serialized by a generator. Default: False.
 

Lib/email/base64mime.py

@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@
 with Base64 encoding.
 
 RFC 2045 defines a method for including character set information in an
-`encoded-word' in a header.  This method is commonly used for 8-bit real names
+'encoded-word' in a header.  This method is commonly used for 8-bit real names
 in To:, From:, Cc:, etc. fields, as well as Subject: lines.
 
 This module does not do the line wrapping or end-of-line character conversion

Lib/email/charset.py

@@ -175,7 +175,7 @@ class Charset:
     module expose the following information about a character set:
 
     input_charset: The initial character set specified.  Common aliases
-                   are converted to their `official' email names (e.g. latin_1
+                   are converted to their 'official' email names (e.g. latin_1
                    is converted to iso-8859-1).  Defaults to 7-bit us-ascii.
 
     header_encoding: If the character set must be encoded before it can be
@@ -245,7 +245,7 @@ def __eq__(self, other):
     def get_body_encoding(self):
         """Return the content-transfer-encoding used for body encoding.
 
-        This is either the string `quoted-printable' or `base64' depending on
+        This is either the string 'quoted-printable' or 'base64' depending on
         the encoding used, or it is a function in which case you should call
         the function with a single argument, the Message object being
         encoded.  The function should then set the Content-Transfer-Encoding

Lib/email/generator.py

@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ def __init__(self, outfp, mangle_from_=None, maxheaderlen=None, *,
 
         Optional mangle_from_ is a flag that, when True (the default if policy
         is not set), escapes From_ lines in the body of the message by putting
-        a `>' in front of them.
+        a '>' in front of them.
 
         Optional maxheaderlen specifies the longest length for a non-continued
         header.  When a header line is longer (in characters, with tabs
@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ def flatten(self, msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None):
 
         unixfrom is a flag that forces the printing of a Unix From_ delimiter
         before the first object in the message tree.  If the original message
-        has no From_ delimiter, a `standard' one is crafted.  By default, this
+        has no From_ delimiter, a 'standard' one is crafted.  By default, this
         is False to inhibit the printing of any From_ delimiter.
 
         Note that for subobjects, no From_ line is printed.
@@ -456,7 +456,7 @@ def __init__(self, outfp, mangle_from_=None, maxheaderlen=None, fmt=None, *,
         argument is allowed.
 
         Walks through all subparts of a message.  If the subpart is of main
-        type `text', then it prints the decoded payload of the subpart.
+        type 'text', then it prints the decoded payload of the subpart.
 
         Otherwise, fmt is a format string that is used instead of the message
         payload.  fmt is expanded with the following keywords (in