Change & to be a borrow operator.

Change the address-of operator (`&`) to a borrow operator. This is an
alternative to rust-lang#241 and rust-lang#226 (cross-borrowing coercions). The borrow operator
would perform as many dereferences as possible and then take the address of the
result. The result of `&expr` would always have type `&T` where `T` does not
implement `Deref`.

0000-borrow.md

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+- Start Date: (fill me in with today's date, YYYY-MM-DD)
+- RFC PR: (leave this empty)
+- Rust Issue: (leave this empty)
+
+
+# Summary
+
+Change the address-of operator (`&`) to a borrow operator. This is an
+alternative to #241 and #226 (cross-borrowing coercions). The borrow operator
+would perform as many dereferences as possible and then take the address of the
+result. The result of `&expr` would always have type `&T` where `T` does not
+implement `Deref`.
+
+
+# Motivation
+
+In Rust the concept of ownership is more important than the precise level of
+indirection. Whilst it is important to distinguish between values and references
+for performance reasons, Rust's ownership model means it is less important to
+know how many levels of indirection are involved in a reference.
+
+It is annoying to have to write out `&*`, `&**`, etc. to convert from one
+pointer kind to another. It is not really informative and just makes reading and
+writing Rust more painful.
+
+It would be nice to strongly enforce the principle that the first type a
+programmer should think of for a function signature is `&T` and to discourage
+use of types like `&Box<T>` or `Box<T>`, since these are less general. However,
+that generality is somewhat lost if the user of such functions has to consider
+how to convert to `&T`.
+
+
+# Detailed design
+
+Writing `&expr` has the effect of dereferencing `expr` as many times as possible
+(by calling `deref` from the `Deref` trait or by doing a compiler-built-in
+dereference) and taking the address of the result.
+
+Where `T` is some type that does not implement `Deref`, `&x` will have type `&T`
+if `x` has type `T`, `&T`, `Box<T>`, `Rc<T>`, `&Rc<T>`, `Box<&Rc<Box<&T>`, and
+so forth.
+
+`&mut expr` would behave the same way but take a mutable reference as the final
+step. The expression would have type `&mut T`. The usual rules for dereferencing
+and taking a mutable reference would apply, so the programmer cannot subvert
+Rust's mutability invariants.
+
+No coercions may be applied to `expr` in `&expr`, but they may be applied to
+`&expr` if it would otherwise be possible.
+
+Raw pointers would not be dereferenced by `&`. We expect raw pointer
+dereferences to be explicit and to be in an unsafe block. So if `x` has type
+`&Box<*Gc<T>>`, then `&x` would have type `&*Gc<T>`. Alternatively, we could
+make attempting to dereference a raw pointer using `&` a type error, so `&x`
+would give a type error and a note advising to use explicit dereferencing.
+
+Writing `&(expr)` (and similarly for `&mut(expr)`) will have the effect of
+taking the address of `expr` (the current semantics of `&expr`). If `expr` has
+type `U`, for any `U`, then `&(expr)` will have type `&U`. This syntax is not
+the greatest, and I'm very open to other suggestions. In particular writing
+`&(some_big_expression)` will give the address-of not borrow behaviour, which
+might be confusing. In practice, I hope this works, since when doing explicit
+referencing/dereferencing, people often use brackets (e.g., `(&*x).foo()` would
+become `(&(*x)).foo()`). I hope these cases are very rare. It is only necessary
+when you need an expression to have type `&Rc<T>` or similar, and when that
+expression is not the receiver of a method call.
+
+
+# Drawbacks
+
+Arguably, we should be very explicit about indirection in a systems language,
+and this proposal blurs that distinctions somewhat.
+
+When a function _does_ want to borrow an owning reference (e.g., takes a
+`&Box<T>` or `&mut Vec<T>`), it would be more painful to call that function. I
+believe this situation is rare, however.
+
+
+# Alternatives
+
+Take this proposal, but use a different operator. This new operator would have
+the semantics proposed here for `&`, and `&` would continue to be an address-of
+operator.
+
+There are two RFCs for different flavours of cross-borrowing: #226 and #241.
+
+#226 proposes sugaring `&*expr` as `expr` by doing a dereference and then an
+address-of. This converts any pointer-like type to a borrowed reference.
+
+#241 proposes sugaring `&*n expr` to `expr` where `*n` means any number of
+dereferences. This converts any borrowed pointer-like type to a borrowed
+reference, erasing multiple layers of indirection.
+
+At a high level, #226 privileges the level of indirection, and #241 privileges
+ownership. This RFC is closer to #241 in spirit, in that it erases multiple
+layers of indirection and privileges ownership over indirection.
+
+All three proposals mean less fiddling with `&` and `*` to get the type you want
+and none of them erase the difference between a value and a reference (as auto-
+borrowing would).
+
+In many cases this proposal and #241 give similar results. The difference is
+that this proposal is linked to an operator and is type independent, whereas
+#241 is implicit and depends on the required type. An example which type checks
+under #241, but not this proposal is:
+
+```
+fn foo(x: &Rc<T>) {
+    let y: &T = x;
+}
+```
+
+Under this proposal you would use `let y = &x;`.
+
+I believe the advantages of this approach vs an implicit coercion are:
+
+* better integration with type inference (note no explicit type in the above
+  example);
+* more easily predictable and explainable behaviour (because we always do
+  as many dereferences as possible, c.f. a coercion which does _some_ number of
+  dereferences, dependent on the expected type);
+* does not complicate the coercion system, which is already fairly complex and
+  obscure (RFC on this coming up soon, btw).
+
+The principle advantage of the coercion approach is flexibility, in particular
+in the case where we want to borrow a reference to a smart pointer, e.g.
+(aturon),
+
+```
+fn wants_vec_ref(v: &mut Vec<u8>) { ... }
+
+fn has_vec(v: Vec<u8>) {
+    wants_vec_ref(&mut v); // coercing Vec to &mut Vec
+}
+```
+
+Under this proposal `&mut v` would have type `&mut[u8]` so we would fail type
+checking (I actually think this is desirable because it is more predictable,
+although it is also a bit surprising). Instead you would write `&mut(v)`. (This
+example assumes `Deref` for `Vec`, but the point stands without it, in general).
+
+
+# Unresolved questions
+
+Can we do better than `&(expr)` syntax for address-of?
+
+
+## Slicing
+
+There is a separate question about how to handle the `Vec<T>` -> `&[T]` and
+`String` -> `&str` conversions. We currently support this conversion by calling
+the `as_slice` method or using the empty slicing syntax (`expr[]`). If we want,
+we could implement `Deref<[T]>` for `Vec<T>` and `Deref<str>` for `String`,
+which would allow us to convert using `&*expr`. With this RFC, we could convert
+using `&expr` (with RFC #226 the conversion would be implicit).
+
+The question is really about `Vec`, `String`, and `Deref`, and is mostly
+orthogonal to this RFC. As long as we accept this or one of the cross-borrowing
+RFCs, then `Deref` could give us 'nice' conversions from `Vec` and `String`.