#The Greek Legacy #
Note: Kindly indicate which reference your text is referring to. For example,
Cartography [4] is the study and practice of making maps.
###Cartography
Cartography [4] is the study and practice of making maps.It has played an important role in travel and navigation since ancient times. One of the pioneer cartographers to create the map of the world was Anaximander [2] who made important contributions to the science of astronomy and geography.
###Democracy
Democracy is a system of government in which the citizens exercise power directly or elect representatives from among themselves to form a governing body, such as a parliament [3]. Democracy is sometimes referred to as "rule of the majority" [5]. Democracy can be traced back from the present day to classical Athens and Greeks in the 6th century B.C.[3].
###Pap test
The Papanicolaou test [7] - abbreviated as Pap test, known earlier as Pap smear, cervical smear, or smear test - is a method of cervical screening used to detect potentially pre-cancerous and cancerous processes in the cervix (opening of the uterus or womb). Abnormal findings are often followed up by more sensitive diagnostic procedures, and, if warranted, interventions that aim to prevent progression to cervical cancer. The test was invented by, and named for, the prominent Greek doctor Georgios Papanikolaou. The test was invented by and named after the prominent Greek doctor Georgios Papanikolaou, who started his research in 1923.
###Olympic Games
Olympic Games [6] or Olympics is the biggest international sporting events in which athletes from around the world come together to compete in a variety of games. The ancient Olympic Games were held in Olympia in honour of Zeus. The five Olympic Rings [9] represent all the major regions of the world (Asia, Africa, Europe, America and Oceania). Also, the Olympic colours represent the flags of all the nations that compete in the games. The International Olympic committee sees the Olympic Games as an important means to promote world peace through fair and equal athletic competition.
The Ancient Olympic Games [25] were religious and athletic festivals held every four years at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, Greece. Competition was among representatives of several city-states and kingdoms of Ancient Greece. These Games featured mainly athletic but also combat sports such as wrestling and the pankration, horse and chariot racing events. It has been widely written that during the Games, all conflicts among the participating city-states were postponed until the Games were finished. This cessation of hostilities was known as the Olympic peace or truce. This idea is a modern myth because the Greeks never suspended their wars.
###The Parthenon
The Parthenon [8] is a former temple on top of the sacred place of the Acropolis, situated at the center of Athens, the capital of Greece. It is dedicated to the goddess Athena (Modern Greek: "Ἀθηνᾶ") who is believed to be the city’s patron [8]. It is also estimated that the Athenians began its construction at 447 BC during an era when the Athenian Empire was very powerful [8]. However, other sources refer to a previous establishment that had already started to be built when it was burned by the Persians at 480 BC, at the position where the Parthenon was built later on [1]. The Parthenon was finally completed in 438 BC although some minor decoration changes continued for 6 more years (until 432 BC). It should be mentioned that the Parthenon, which was built by following the standards of the Doric order, is undoubtedly the most important surviving building of the Classical Greece [8].
###Frappe Coffee
Frappe Coffee [10] is an iced coffee drink with foam made by instant coffee and is usually served with milk. It was invented accidentally in 1957 in Thessaloniki,Greece by a Greek Nescafe representative and has become the most popular coffee drink for Greeks and tourists as well. The word frappe comes from French and it means to hit which is also the cause for the foam.
###The Delphic maxims
Are a set of 147 aphorisms inscribed at Delphi. Originally, they were said to have been given by the Greek god Apollo's Oracle at Delphi and were therefore attributed to Apollo himself. The 5th century scholar Stobaeus later attributed them to the Seven Sages of Greece. Contemporary scholars, however, hold that their original authorship is uncertain and that "most likely they were popular proverbs, which tended later to be attributed to particular sages." Perhaps the most famous of these maxims is 'know thyself', which was carved into the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. The specific order and wording of each maxim varies between different versions (and translations) of the text.[11]
Some of them are:
- Respect your parents
- Know what you have learned
- Be/Know yourself
- If you are a stranger act like one
- Control yourself
- Help your friends
- Love friendship
- Listen to everyone
###The Democratisation of Literacy
The Greeks did not just invent an alphabet. They succeeded in making literacy available to the masses. Greek letters, being mapped carefully and extensibly to sounds, were easy to learn. Therefore, even children could learn to read while learning the sounds of the oral vocabulary.
Moreover, by stripping letters off their meaning, reading them lost its psychology influencing ability. Reading it, imposed no references to the properties of the letter. Thus writting became for the first time an instrument of thought.
Additionally, by organising schools to instruct reading at an elementary level, it became a reflex and a common skill that was later spread to an even bigger population.
###Antikythera mechanism
The Antikythera mechanism is an ancient analogue computer and orrery used to predict astronomical positions and eclipses for calendrical and astrological purposes, as well as the Olympiads, the cycles of the ancient Olympic Games.
The Antikythera mechanism was discovered in 45 metres (148 ft) of water in the Antikythera shipwreck off Point Glyphadia on the Greek island of Antikythera. The wreck was found in April 1900 by a group of Greek sponge divers, who retrieved numerous artefacts, including bronze and marble statues, pottery, unique glassware, jewellery, coins, and the mechanism. All were transferred to the National Museum of Archaeology in Athens for storage and analysis. Merely a lump of corroded bronze and wood at the time, the mechanism went unnoticed for two years while museum staff worked on piecing together more obvious statues
###Theatre
Theatre [14] is a collaborative form of fine art that uses live performers, typically actors or actresses, to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gesture, speech, song, music, and dance. Elements of art, such as painted scenery and stagecraft such as lighting are used to enhance the physicality, presence and immediacy of the experience.
The city-state of Athens is where western theatre originated [4]. It was part of a broader culture of theatricality and performance in classical Greece that included festivals, religious rituals, politics, law, athletics and gymnastics, music, poetry, weddings, funerals, and symposia.
###Mathematics
The Greeks produced great advancements in mathematics [15] which are still used today. Euclid was known for the basic rules and terms of geometry. Pythagoras was famous for his theorem A2 +B2 = C2 for a right triangle. Pythagoras also came up with the value of pie to calculate the circumference of a circle. Archimedes discovered the physical law of displacement. The law of displacement is when an object moves the same volume of water as the object which is placed in it. Archimedes also used levers and pulleys to move heavy objects. He once launched a fully loaded ship all by himself. Archimedes also invented the Archimedes screw, which raises water up from rivers for the irrigation of fields. In addition to discoveries in math and physics, he also invented weapons to help the Greeks fight off Roman invasion. One of those weapons was the catapult. In 21 B.C. the Romans captured his city and killed him.
###Archimedes' Principle
In On Floating Bodies, Archimedes suggested that (c. 250 BC):
Any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
Practically, Archimedes' principle allows the buoyancy of an object partially or fully immersed in a liquid to be calculated. The downward force on the object is simply its weight. The upward, or buoyant, force on the object is that stated by Archimedes' principle, above. Thus, the net upward force on the object is the difference between the buoyant force and its weight. If this net force is positive, the object rises; if negative, the object sinks; and if zero, the object is neutrally buoyant - that is, it remains in place without either rising or sinking. In simple words, Archimedes' principle states that, when a body is partially or completely immersed in a fluid, it experiences an apparent loss in weight that is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the immersed part of the body.
###Ancient Greek Philosophy
Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC and continued throughout the Hellenistic period and the period in which Ancient Greece was part of the Roman Empire. Philosophy was used to make sense out of the world in a non-religious way. It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric, and aesthetics[citation needed].
Many philosophers around the world agree that Greek philosophy has influenced much of Western culture since its inception. Alfred North Whitehead once noted: "The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato." Clear, unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers to Early Islamic philosophy, the European Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.
###Astronomy
The development of astronomy [17] by the Greek and Hellenistic astronomers is considered by historians to be a major phase in the history of astronomy. Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena. Most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy, as are the names of many stars, asteroids, and planets. It was influenced by Egyptian and especially Babylonian astronomy; in turn, it influenced Indian, Arabic-Islamic and Western European astronomy.
###Marathon
The marathon[18] is a long-distance running race with an official distance of 42.195 kilometres (26.219 miles, or 26 miles 385 yards), usually run as a road race. The event was instituted in commemoration of the fabled run of the Greek soldier Pheidippides (more correctly, Philippides), a messenger from the Battle of Marathon to Athens, who reported the victory.
The name Marathon comes from the legend of Philippides or Pheidippides, the Greek messenger. The legend states that he was sent from the battlefield of Marathon to Athens to announce that the Persians had been defeated in the Battle of Marathon (in which he had just fought), which took place in August or September, 490 BC. It is said that he ran the entire distance without stopping and burst into the assembly, exclaiming "νενικήκαμεν" (nenikēkamen, "we have won!"), before collapsing and dying.
The marathon was one of the original modern Olympic events in 1896, though the distance did not become standardized until 1921. More than 500 marathons are held throughout the world each year, with the vast majority of competitors being recreational athletes as larger marathons can have tens of thousands of participants.
###Coasts and beaches
The Greek coast has a total length of approximately 16,000 km. Half of this length includes the thousands of Greek islands scattered through the Greek seas, while the rest extends along the mainland. The Greek shores are world-famous and exceedingly popular because they are known for their crystal clean and clear waters, as well as for their unique diversity. The visitor has the opportunity to enjoy beaches stretching along over many kilometers, sheltered bays and coves, golden stretches of sand with dunes, pebble beaches, coastal caves with steep rocks and dark sand typical of volcanic soil. Every year hundreds of beaches and marinas in Greece are awarded with the “Blue Flag”. Most of the thousands of Greek coasts are freely accessible and you can easily discover and enjoy them. There are also many organized beaches in the country, with the necessary infrastructure providing high-quality services (umbrellas, reclining chairs, change booths, cafes, bar-restaurants etc), where, apart from swimming, you can enjoy water sports (water skiing, windsurfing, diving, etc) as well as other means of having fun in the water, such as the parasailing, “inner tubes”, “bananas”, wakeboard, jet ski, etc. All organized beaches also have manned lifeguard towers, ensuring safe swimming in the area.
###Phaistos Disc
The Phaistos Disc [20] -also spelled Phaistos Disk, Phaestos Disc- is a disk of fired clay from the Minoan palace of Phaistos on the island of Crete, possibly dating to the middle or late Minoan Bronze Age (second millennium B.C.). Now, the island of Crete is part of modern Greece. The disk is about 15 cm (5.9 in) in diameter and covered on both sides with a spiral of stamped symbols. Its purpose and meaning, and even its original geographical place of manufacture, remain disputed, making it one of the most famous mysteries of archaeology. This unique object is now on display at the archaeological museum of Heraklion.
The disc was discovered in 1908 by the Italian archaeologist Luigi Pernier in the Minoan palace-site of Phaistos, and features 241 tokens, comprising 45 distinct signs, which were apparently made by pressing hieroglyphic "seals" into a disc of soft clay, in a clockwise sequence spiraling toward the center of the disk.
The Phaistos Disc captured the imagination of amateur and professional archaeologists, and many attempts have been made to decipher the code behind the disc's signs. While it is not clear that it is a script, most attempted decipherments assume that it is; most additionally assume a syllabary, others an alphabet or logography. Attempts at decipherment are generally thought to be unlikely to succeed unless more examples of the signs are found, as it is generally agreed that there is not enough context available for a meaningful analysis.
Although the Phaistos Disc is generally accepted as authentic by archaeologists, a few scholars believe that the disc is a forgery or a hoax.
###Sieve of Eratosthenes
In mathematics, the sieve of Eratosthenes (Ancient Greek: κόσκινον Ἐρατοσθένους, kóskinon Eratosthénous), one of a number of prime number sieves, is a simple, ancient algorithm for finding all prime numbers up to any given limit. It does so by iteratively marking as composite (i.e., not prime) the multiples of each prime, starting with the multiples of 2.[1]
The multiples of a given prime are generated as a sequence of numbers starting from that prime, with constant difference between them that is equal to that prime.[1] This is the sieve's key distinction from using trial division to sequentially test each candidate number for divisibility by each prime.[2]
The sieve of Eratosthenes is one of the most efficient ways to find all of the smaller primes. It is named after Eratosthenes of Cyrene, a Greek mathematician; although none of his works have survived, the sieve was described and attributed to Eratosthenes in the Introduction to Arithmetic by Nicomachus.[3]
The sieve may be used to find primes in arithmetic progressions.[4]
###Vending Machine
The first vending machine was a construction of Heron of Alexandria (c. 10-70 AD). He was an ancient Greek mathematician and engineer. His machine accepted a coin and then dispensed a set amount of holy water. When the coin was deposited, it fell upon a pan attached to a lever. The lever opened up a valve which let some water flow out. The pan continued to tilt with the weight of the coin until it fell off, at which point a counter-weight would snap the lever back up and turn off the valve. [22]
###Strained yogurt
Strained yogurt, Greek yogurt, yogurt cheese, or labneh, is yogurt that has been strained to remove its whey, resulting in a thicker consistency than unstrained yogurt, while preserving yogurt's distinctive, sour taste. Like many types of yogurt, strained yogurt is often made from milk that has been enriched by boiling off some of its water content, or by adding extra butterfat and powdered milk. In Europe and North America, it is often made with low-fat or fat-free yogurt. In Scandinavia, particularly Iceland, a similar product, skyr is produced. [23]
###Music
Much of modern Western music theory has its roots in the work of Pythagoras, who defined concepts such as the interval, harmonics, overtones, etc. [26] From Pythagoras also comes the Circle of Fifths, a fundamental device in music theory, and with it, the 12-tone equal temperament, which is the tuning system all Western instruments adhere to. [27] The pipe organ, widely used in Catholic religious music and Baroque music by composers such as J.S. Bach, has its origins in the Greek hydraulis. [28]
###Tragedy
Athenian tragedy [29] - the oldest surviving form of tragedy- is a type of dance-drama that formed an important part of the theatrical culture of the city-state. Tragedy’s origins are estimated to be in the theatre of ancient Greece 2500 years ago, from which there survives only a fraction of the work of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides.
Tragedy is a form of drama based on human suffering that invokes an accompanying catharsis [30] or pleasure in audiences. The term did not have the negative impact we give it today, as it did not just describe a tragic event. Tragedy was the collision of two “rights” that was based on a truth. This collision was indeed unfair for one of the two parties, but this did not make it any less righteous, as it served justice.
###Souvlaki
Souvlaki [31] (Greek: σουβλάκι [suˈvlaci]), plural souvlakia, is a popular Greek fast food consisting of small pieces of meat and sometimes vegetables grilled on a skewer. It is usually served with grilled bread, or in a pita wrap with garnishes and sauces, or on a dinner plate, often with fried potatoes. The meat usually used in Greece and Cyprus is pork, although chicken and lamb may also be used. In other countries and for tourists, including those in Oxford, souvlaki may be made with meats such as lamb, beef, chicken and sometimes fish. The word souvlaki is a diminutive of the Medieval Greek óïýâëá souvla 'skewer', itself borrowed from Latin subula. 'Souvlaki' is the common term in northern Greece, while in southern Greece it is commonly known as 'kalamaki'.
###Hippocratic Oath
The Hippocratic Oath is an oath historically taken by physicians. It is one of the most widely known of Greek medical texts. In its original form, it requires a new physician to swear, by a number of healing gods, to uphold specific ethical standards. Of historic and traditional value, the oath is considered a rite of passage for practitioners of medicine in many countries, although nowadays various modernized versions are often used; the message delivered is still the same: do no harm.
Hippocrates is often called the father of medicine in Western culture [1]. The original oath was written in Ionic Greek, in the late Fifth Century BCE [2]. It is usually included in the Hippocratic Corpus.
###Odeon of Herodes Atticus
The Odeon of Herodes Atticus [33] is a stone theatre structure located on the southwest slope of the Acropolis of Athens[34]. It was built in 161 AD by the Athenian magnate Herodes Atticus[34] in memory of his wife, Aspasia Annia Regilla. It was originally a steep-sloped theater with a three-story stone front wall and a wooden roof made of expensive, cedar of Lebanon timber[35]. It was used as a venue for music concerts with a capacity of 5,000. It lasted intact until it was destroyed and left in ruins by the Heruli in 267 AD. The audience stands and the orchestra (stage) were restored using pentelic marble in the 1950s. Since then it has been the main venue of the Athens Festival, which runs from May through October each year, featuring a variety of acclaimed Greek as well as International performances.
###Eros
In Greek mythology Eros was the God of love and sex [36] . Greeks were the people who tried first to express the feeling of real love, while in the rest world people were still trying to understand and control it. In some stories, Eros is supposed to be the son of Aphrodite (the Goddess of beauty). Eros is the little invisible winged God and when the arrows of his arc heart two people then, they love in depth each other. Nowadays Eros is still being learned in the primary school's books.
###Meteora
Meteora [37] is a Greek mountain which consists mainly of rocks and it has a lot Greek Orthodox monasteries. Actually, meteora means "middle of the sky", "suspended in the air" or "in the heavens above". Meteora is one of the UNESCO World Heritage List. It would be a fault not to mention that meteora were inhabited between 50.000 and 5.000 years ago and this place contained a lot of caves were people lived.This caves are known as the oldest example of man-made structure. Furthermore, in the 16th century it had 24 monasteries from which only six remain inhabited today, two by women and four by men. Mainly the monasteries are not tourist attractions.
###Philotimo
Philotimo [38] is considered to be the highest of all Greek virtues which determines and regulates how someone should behave in their family and social groups. It is mostly about respect and doing the right thing. In its simplest form it means "doing good", and it ensures your behavior will make you stand out from others. It will demonstrate what kind of a person you are and the manner in which you were brought up. Philotimo to a Greek is essentially a way of life.
Children are said to have philotimo when they display unconditional love and respect towards their parents, grandparents and friends. It can mean gratitude for a small gift someone might have given you, or a small random act of kindness someone may have shown you. It is an appreciation and admiration for heritage and ancestors — philotimo is honor and pride.
During the Second World War, strong bonds were formed and still exist in places like the Greek island of Crete where the locals would risk their own lives to hide and shelter Australian and British soldiers from the Nazi occupying forces. The locals felt duty-bound to help, their philotimo urged them on - If caught, they risked facing a firing squad.
Philotimo is the feeling of not being able to do enough for your family, society and your community; it is expressed through acts of generosity and sacrifice without expecting anything in return. Philotimo is to put the needs and well being of others before one's own, even before one's need to live or exist.
The 7th-century BC pre-Socratic [39] Greek philosopher Thales [40] , one of the Seven Sages of Greece [41] says that philotimo is part of the essence of being Greek. “Philotimo to the Greek is like breathing. A Greek is not a Greek without it. He might as well not be alive.”
###Feta
Feta is a brined curd white cheese made in Greece from sheep's milk, or from a mixture of sheep and goat's milk. Similar brined white cheeses produces in Europe are often made partly or wholly of cow's milk, and they are also sometimes called feta. It is a crumbly aged cheese, commonly produced in blocks, and has a slightly grainy texture. Feta is used as a table cheese, as well as in salads (e.g. the Greek salad) and pastries. Most notable is its use in the popular phyllo-based dishes spanakopita ("spinach pie") and tyropita ("cheese pie"), or served with some olive oil or olives and sprinkled with aromatic herbs such as oregano. It can also be served cooked or grilled, as part of a sandwich, in omelettes, or as a salty alternative to other cheeses in a variety of dishes.
Since 2002, "feta" has been a protected designation of origin product in the European Union. According to the relevant EU legislation, only those cheeses produced in a traditional way in particular areas of Greece, which are made from sheep's milk, or from a mixture of sheep's and up to 30% of goat's milk from the same area, can be called "feta".[1] However, similar white-brined cheeses (often called "white cheese" in various languages) are found in the Eastern Mediterranean and around the Black Sea.
###Greek Hospitality
The greek word "Xenia" [43], which can be translated as "guest-friendship" is the ancient Greek concept of hospitality, the generosity and courtesy shown to those who are far from home and/or associates of the person bestowing guest-friendship.
Consequently, "Xenia" consists of two basic rules. The first one is that the host must be hospitable to the guest and provide him/her with food, drink, bath and gifts when they leave. It is not polite to ask questions until the guest has finished the meal provided to them. And the second on is that the guest must be courteous to the host and not be a burden. The guest should also provide a gift if they have one.
In addition, "Xenia" was considered to be particularly important in ancient times when people thought gods mingled among them. If one had poorly played host to a stranger, there was the risk of incurring the wrath of a god disguised as the stranger. Note that the greek god Zeus was sometimes called Zeus Xenios in his role as a protector of guests. He thus embodied the religious obligation to be hospitable to travelers.
Even though hospitality nowadays may differs, it is still visible [44]. In the past, travelers used to rely on the hospitality of others for shelter, food, and protection. In modern times there is no need to for someone to ask for these, since there are plenty of hotels and restaurants almost anywhere one can go. However, hospitality is still shown in modern society. For example, when someone’s car breaks down most people would welcome them into their homes and help them in any way they can without even asking who they are. Also, most people know of someone, be it family or friend, in a different city that would welcome them and provide them with a place to stay and food, which is similar to the "Xenia".
##References
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D. Crowley and P. Heyer, Communication In History, 1st ed. Abingdon England: Routledge, 2016, pp. 38-43.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_Games#Ancient_Olympics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece#Music_and_philosophy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_comma#Circle_of_fifths_and_enharmonic_change
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_(music)#Historical_instruments