run.c

/* Inference for Llama-2 Transformer model in pure C */

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <ctype.h>
#include <time.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <fcntl.h>
#if defined _WIN32
    #include "win.h"
#else
    #include <unistd.h>
    #include <sys/mman.h>
#endif
// ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
// Transformer and RunState structs, and related memory management

typedef struct {
    int dim; // transformer dimension
    int hidden_dim; // for ffn layers
    int n_layers; // number of layers
    int n_heads; // number of query heads
    int n_kv_heads; // number of key/value heads (can be < query heads because of multiquery)
    int vocab_size; // vocabulary size, usually 256 (byte-level)
    int seq_len; // max sequence length
} Config;

typedef struct {
    // token embedding table
    float* token_embedding_table;    // (vocab_size, dim)
    // weights for rmsnorms
    float* rms_att_weight; // (layer, dim) rmsnorm weights
    float* rms_ffn_weight; // (layer, dim)
    // weights for matmuls. note dim == n_heads * head_size
    float* wq; // (layer, dim, n_heads * head_size)
    float* wk; // (layer, dim, n_kv_heads * head_size)
    float* wv; // (layer, dim, n_kv_heads * head_size)
    float* wo; // (layer, n_heads * head_size, dim)
    // weights for ffn
    float* w1; // (layer, hidden_dim, dim)
    float* w2; // (layer, dim, hidden_dim)
    float* w3; // (layer, hidden_dim, dim)
    // final rmsnorm
    float* rms_final_weight; // (dim,)
    // freq_cis for RoPE relatively positional embeddings (not used anymore)
    float* freq_cis_real; // (seq_len, head_size/2)
    float* freq_cis_imag; // (seq_len, head_size/2)
    // (optional) classifier weights for the logits, on the last layer
    float* wcls;
} TransformerWeights;

typedef struct {
    float prob;
    int index;
} ProbIndex; // struct used when sorting probabilities during top-p sampling

typedef struct {
    // current wave of activations
    float *x; // activation at current time stamp (dim,)
    float *xb; // same, but inside a residual branch (dim,)
    float *xb2; // an additional buffer just for convenience (dim,)
    float *hb; // buffer for hidden dimension in the ffn (hidden_dim,)
    float *hb2; // buffer for hidden dimension in the ffn (hidden_dim,)
    float *q; // query (dim,)
    float *k; // key (dim,)
    float *v; // value (dim,)
    float *att; // buffer for scores/attention values (n_heads, seq_len)
    float *logits; // output logits
    ProbIndex *probindex; // buffer used in top-p sampling
    // kv cache
    float* key_cache;   // (layer, seq_len, dim)
    float* value_cache; // (layer, seq_len, dim)
} RunState;

void malloc_run_state(RunState* s, Config* p) {
    // we calloc instead of malloc to keep valgrind happy
    int kv_dim = (p->dim * p->n_kv_heads) / p->n_heads;
    s->x = calloc(p->dim, sizeof(float));
    s->xb = calloc(p->dim, sizeof(float));
    s->xb2 = calloc(p->dim, sizeof(float));
    s->hb = calloc(p->hidden_dim, sizeof(float));
    s->hb2 = calloc(p->hidden_dim, sizeof(float));
    s->q = calloc(p->dim, sizeof(float));
    s->k = calloc(kv_dim, sizeof(float));
    s->v = calloc(kv_dim, sizeof(float));
    s->att = calloc(p->n_heads * p->seq_len, sizeof(float));
    s->logits = calloc(p->vocab_size, sizeof(float));
    s->probindex = calloc(p->vocab_size, sizeof(ProbIndex));
    s->key_cache = calloc(p->n_layers * p->seq_len * kv_dim, sizeof(float));
    s->value_cache = calloc(p->n_layers * p->seq_len * kv_dim, sizeof(float));
    // ensure all mallocs went fine
    if (!s->x || !s->xb || !s->xb2 || !s->hb || !s->hb2 || !s->q
     || !s->k || !s->v || !s->att || !s->logits || !s->key_cache
     || !s->value_cache || !s->probindex) {
        fprintf(stderr, "malloc failed!\n");
        exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
    }
}

void free_run_state(RunState* s) {
    free(s->x);
    free(s->xb);
    free(s->xb2);
    free(s->hb);
    free(s->hb2);
    free(s->q);
    free(s->k);
    free(s->v);
    free(s->att);
    free(s->logits);
    free(s->probindex);
    free(s->key_cache);
    free(s->value_cache);
}

// ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
// initialization: read from checkpoint

void checkpoint_init_weights(TransformerWeights *w, Config* p, float* ptr, int shared_weights) {
    int head_size = p->dim / p->n_heads;
    w->token_embedding_table = ptr;
    ptr += p->vocab_size * p->dim;
    w->rms_att_weight = ptr;
    ptr += p->n_layers * p->dim;
    w->wq = ptr;
    ptr += p->n_layers * p->dim * (p->n_heads * head_size);
    w->wk = ptr;
    ptr += p->n_layers * p->dim * (p->n_kv_heads * head_size);
    w->wv = ptr;
    ptr += p->n_layers * p->dim * (p->n_kv_heads * head_size);
    w->wo = ptr;
    ptr += p->n_layers * (p->n_heads * head_size) * p->dim;
    w->rms_ffn_weight = ptr;
    ptr += p->n_layers * p->dim;
    w->w1 = ptr;
    ptr += p->n_layers * p->dim * p->hidden_dim;
    w->w2 = ptr;
    ptr += p->n_layers * p->hidden_dim * p->dim;
    w->w3 = ptr;
    ptr += p->n_layers * p->dim * p->hidden_dim;
    w->rms_final_weight = ptr;
    ptr += p->dim;
    w->freq_cis_real = ptr;
    ptr += p->seq_len * head_size / 2;
    w->freq_cis_imag = ptr;
    ptr += p->seq_len * head_size / 2;
    w->wcls = shared_weights ? w->token_embedding_table : ptr;
}

// ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
// neural net blocks

void rmsnorm(float* o, float* x, float* weight, int size) {
    // calculate sum of squares
    float ss = 0.0f;
    for (int j = 0; j < size; j++) {
        ss += x[j] * x[j];
    }
    ss /= size;
    ss += 1e-5f;
    ss = 1.0f / sqrtf(ss);
    // normalize and scale
    for (int j = 0; j < size; j++) {
        o[j] = weight[j] * (ss * x[j]);
    }
}

void softmax(float* x, int size) {
    // find max value (for numerical stability)
    float max_val = x[0];
    for (int i = 1; i < size; i++) {
        if (x[i] > max_val) {
            max_val = x[i];
        }
    }
    // exp and sum
    float sum = 0.0f;
    for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
        x[i] = expf(x[i] - max_val);
        sum += x[i];
    }
    // normalize
    for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
        x[i] /= sum;
    }
}

void matmul(float* xout, float* x, float* w, int n, int d) {
    // W (d,n) @ x (n,) -> xout (d,)
    // by far the most amount of time is spent inside this little function
    int i;
    #pragma omp parallel for private(i)
    for (i = 0; i < d; i++) {
        float val = 0.0f;
        for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
            val += w[i * n + j] * x[j];
        }
        xout[i] = val;
    }
}

void transformer(int token, int pos, Config* p, RunState* s, TransformerWeights* w) {

    // a few convenience variables
    float *x = s->x;
    int dim = p->dim;
    int kv_dim = (p->dim * p->n_kv_heads) / p->n_heads;
    int kv_mul = p->n_heads / p->n_kv_heads; // integer multiplier of the kv sharing in multiquery
    int hidden_dim =  p->hidden_dim;
    int head_size = dim / p->n_heads;

    // copy the token embedding into x
    float* content_row = &(w->token_embedding_table[token * dim]);
    memcpy(x, content_row, dim*sizeof(*x));

    // forward all the layers
    for(int l = 0; l < p->n_layers; l++) {

        // attention rmsnorm
        rmsnorm(s->xb, x, w->rms_att_weight + l*dim, dim);

        // qkv matmuls for this position
        matmul(s->q, s->xb, w->wq + l*dim*dim, dim, dim);
        matmul(s->k, s->xb, w->wk + l*dim*kv_dim, dim, kv_dim);
        matmul(s->v, s->xb, w->wv + l*dim*kv_dim, dim, kv_dim);

        // RoPE relative positional encoding: complex-valued rotate q and k in each head
        for (int i = 0; i < dim; i+=2) {
            int head_dim = i % head_size;
            float freq = 1.0f / powf(10000.0f, head_dim / (float)head_size);
            float val = pos * freq;
            float fcr = cosf(val);
            float fci = sinf(val);
            int rotn = i < kv_dim ? 2 : 1; // how many vectors? 2 = q & k, 1 = q only
            for (int v = 0; v < rotn; v++) {
                float* vec = v == 0 ? s->q : s->k; // the vector to rotate (query or key)
                float v0 = vec[i];
                float v1 = vec[i+1];
                vec[i]   = v0 * fcr - v1 * fci;
                vec[i+1] = v0 * fci + v1 * fcr;
            }
        }

        // save key,value at this time step (pos) to our kv cache
        int loff = l * p->seq_len * kv_dim; // kv cache layer offset for convenience
        float* key_cache_row = s->key_cache + loff + pos * kv_dim;
        float* value_cache_row = s->value_cache + loff + pos * kv_dim;
        memcpy(key_cache_row, s->k, kv_dim * sizeof(*key_cache_row));
        memcpy(value_cache_row, s->v, kv_dim * sizeof(*value_cache_row));

        // multihead attention. iterate over all heads
        int h;
        #pragma omp parallel for private(h)
        for (h = 0; h < p->n_heads; h++) {
            // get the query vector for this head
            float* q = s->q + h * head_size;
            // attention scores for this head
            float* att = s->att + h * p->seq_len;
            // iterate over all timesteps, including the current one
            for (int t = 0; t <= pos; t++) {
                // get the key vector for this head and at this timestep
                float* k = s->key_cache + loff + t * kv_dim + (h / kv_mul) * head_size;
                // calculate the attention score as the dot product of q and k
                float score = 0.0f;
                for (int i = 0; i < head_size; i++) {
                    score += q[i] * k[i];
                }
                score /= sqrtf(head_size);
                // save the score to the attention buffer
                att[t] = score;
            }

            // softmax the scores to get attention weights, from 0..pos inclusively
            softmax(att, pos + 1);

            // weighted sum of the values, store back into xb
            float* xb = s->xb + h * head_size;
            memset(xb, 0, head_size * sizeof(float));
            for (int t = 0; t <= pos; t++) {
                // get the value vector for this head and at this timestep
                float* v = s->value_cache + loff + t * kv_dim + (h / kv_mul) * head_size;
                // get the attention weight for this timestep
                float a = att[t];
                // accumulate the weighted value into xb
                for (int i = 0; i < head_size; i++) {
                    xb[i] += a * v[i];
                }
            }
        }

        // final matmul to get the output of the attention
        matmul(s->xb2, s->xb, w->wo + l*dim*dim, dim, dim);

        // residual connection back into x
        for (int i = 0; i < dim; i++) {
            x[i] += s->xb2[i];
        }

        // ffn rmsnorm
        rmsnorm(s->xb, x, w->rms_ffn_weight + l*dim, dim);

        // Now for FFN in PyTorch we have: self.w2(F.silu(self.w1(x)) * self.w3(x))
        // first calculate self.w1(x) and self.w3(x)
        matmul(s->hb, s->xb, w->w1 + l*dim*hidden_dim, dim, hidden_dim);
        matmul(s->hb2, s->xb, w->w3 + l*dim*hidden_dim, dim, hidden_dim);

        // F.silu; silu(x)=x*σ(x),where σ(x) is the logistic sigmoid
        for (int i = 0; i < hidden_dim; i++) {
            s->hb[i] = s->hb[i] * (1.0f / (1.0f + expf(-s->hb[i])));
        }

        // elementwise multiply with w3(x)
        for (int i = 0; i < hidden_dim; i++) {
            s->hb[i] = s->hb[i] * s->hb2[i];
        }

        // final matmul to get the output of the ffn
        matmul(s->xb, s->hb, w->w2 + l*dim*hidden_dim, hidden_dim, dim);

        // residual connection
        for (int i = 0; i < dim; i++) {
            x[i] += s->xb[i];
        }
    }

    // final rmsnorm
    rmsnorm(x, x, w->rms_final_weight, dim);

    // classifier into logits
    matmul(s->logits, x, w->wcls, p->dim, p->vocab_size);
}

// ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
// byte pair encoding (BPE) tokenizer, encodes strings into tokens so we can prompt

typedef struct {
    char *str;
    int id;
} TokenIndex;

int compare_tokens(const void *a, const void *b) {
    return strcmp(((TokenIndex*)a)->str, ((TokenIndex*)b)->str);
}

int str_lookup(char *str, TokenIndex *sorted_vocab, int vocab_size) {
    // efficiently find the perfect match for str in vocab, return its index or -1 if not found
    TokenIndex tok = { .str = str }; // acts as the key to search for
    TokenIndex *res = bsearch(&tok, sorted_vocab, vocab_size, sizeof(TokenIndex), compare_tokens);
    return res != NULL ? res->id : -1;
}

void bpe_encode(char *text, char **vocab, float *vocab_scores, int vocab_size, unsigned int max_token_length, int *tokens, int *n_tokens) {

    // sort vocabulary
    TokenIndex *sorted_vocab = malloc(vocab_size * sizeof(TokenIndex));
    for (int i = 0; i < vocab_size; i++) {
        sorted_vocab[i].str = vocab[i];
        sorted_vocab[i].id = i;
    }
    qsort(sorted_vocab, vocab_size, sizeof(TokenIndex), compare_tokens);

    // create a temporary buffer that will store merge candidates of always two consecutive tokens
    char* str_buffer = malloc((max_token_length*2 +1 +2) * sizeof(char)); // *2 for concat, +1 for null terminator +2 for UTF8 (in case max_token_lenght is 1)
    size_t str_len = 0;

    // add_dummy_prefix is true by default
    tokens[0] = str_lookup(" ", sorted_vocab, vocab_size);
    *n_tokens = 1; // the number of tokens

    // Okay UTF-8 time. This will get messy. Here is the reference from Wikipedia:
    // Code point ↔ UTF-8 conversion
    // First code point	Last code point	Byte 1	Byte 2	Byte 3	Byte 4
    // U+0000	U+007F	    0xxxxxxx
    // U+0080	U+07FF	    110xxxxx	10xxxxxx
    // U+0800	U+FFFF	    1110xxxx	10xxxxxx	10xxxxxx
    // U+10000	U+10FFFF    11110xxx	10xxxxxx	10xxxxxx	10xxxxxx

    // process the raw (UTF-8) byte sequence of the input string
    for (char *c = text; *c != '\0'; c++) {

        // reset buffer if the current byte is ASCII or a leading byte
        // 0xC0 is 11000000, so (*c & 0xC0) keeps the first 2 bits and zeros the rest
        // 0x80 is 10000000
        // in UTF-8, all continuation bytes start with "10" in first two bits
        // so in English this is: "if this byte is not a continuation byte"
        if ((*c & 0xC0) != 0x80) {
            // this byte must be either a leading byte (11...) or an ASCII char (0x...)
            // => reset our location, as we're starting a new UTF-8 codepoint
            str_len = 0;
        }

        // append the current byte to the buffer
        str_buffer[str_len++] = *c; // ++ is post-increment, incremented after this line
        str_buffer[str_len] = '\0';

        // while the next character is a continuation byte, continue appending
        // but if there are too many of them, just stop to avoid overruning str_buffer size.
        if ((*(c+1) & 0xC0) == 0x80 && str_len < 4) {
            continue;
        }

        // ok c+1 is not a continuation byte, so we've read in a full codepoint
        int id = str_lookup(str_buffer, sorted_vocab, vocab_size);

        if (id != -1) {
            // we found this codepoint in vocab, add it as a token
            tokens[(*n_tokens)++] = id;
        } else {
            // byte_fallback encoding: just encode each byte as a token
            // +3 is here because the first 3 vocab elements are <unk>, <s>, </s>
            // so the individual bytes only start at index 3
            for (int i=0; i < str_len; i++) {
                tokens[(*n_tokens)++] = (unsigned char)str_buffer[i] + 3;
            }
        }
        str_len = 0; // protect against a sequence of stray UTF8 continuation bytes
    }

    // merge the best consecutive pair each iteration, according the scores in vocab_scores
    while (1) {
        float best_score = -1e10;
        int best_id = -1;
        int best_idx = -1;

        for (int i=0; i < (*n_tokens-1); i++) {
            // check if we can merge the pair (tokens[i], tokens[i+1])
            sprintf(str_buffer, "%s%s", vocab[tokens[i]], vocab[tokens[i+1]]);
            int id = str_lookup(str_buffer, sorted_vocab, vocab_size);
            if (id != -1 && vocab_scores[id] > best_score) {
                // this merge pair exists in vocab! record its score and position
                best_score = vocab_scores[id];
                best_id = id;
                best_idx = i;
            }
        }

        if (best_idx == -1) {
            break; // we couldn't find any more pairs to merge, so we're done
        }

        // merge the consecutive pair (best_idx, best_idx+1) into new token best_id
        tokens[best_idx] = best_id;
        // delete token at position best_idx+1, shift the entire sequence back 1
        for (int i = best_idx+1; i < (*n_tokens-1); i++) {
            tokens[i] = tokens[i+1];
        }
        (*n_tokens)--; // token length decreased
    }

    free(str_buffer);
    free(sorted_vocab);
}

// ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
// utilities: time / rng

long time_in_ms() {
    // return time in milliseconds, for benchmarking the model speed
    struct timespec time;
    clock_gettime(CLOCK_REALTIME, &time);
    return time.tv_sec * 1000 + time.tv_nsec / 1000000;
}

unsigned long long rng_seed;
unsigned int random_u32() {
    // xorshift rng: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xorshift#xorshift.2A
    rng_seed ^= rng_seed >> 12;
    rng_seed ^= rng_seed << 25;
    rng_seed ^= rng_seed >> 27;
    return (rng_seed * 0x2545F4914F6CDD1Dull) >> 32;
}
float random_f32() { // random float32 in [0,1)
    return (random_u32() >> 8) / 16777216.0f;
}

// ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
// sampling can be done in a few ways: greedy argmax, sampling, top-p sampling

int argmax(float* probabilities, int n) {
    // return the index that has the highest probability
    int max_i = 0;
    float max_p = probabilities[0];
    for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
        if (probabilities[i] > max_p) {
            max_i = i;
            max_p = probabilities[i];
        }
    }
    return max_i;
}

int sample(float* probabilities, int n) {
    // sample index from probabilities (they must sum to 1!)
    float r = random_f32();
    float cdf = 0.0f;
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        cdf += probabilities[i];
        if (r < cdf) {
            return i;
        }
    }
    return n - 1; // in case of rounding errors
}

int compare(const void* a, const void* b) {
    ProbIndex* a_ = (ProbIndex*) a;
    ProbIndex* b_ = (ProbIndex*) b;
    if (a_->prob > b_->prob) return -1;
    if (a_->prob < b_->prob) return 1;
    return 0;
}

int sample_topp(float* probabilities, int n, float topp, ProbIndex* probindex) {
    // top-p sampling (or "nucleus sampling") samples from the smallest set of
    // tokens that exceed probability topp. This way we never sample tokens that
    // have very low probabilities and are less likely to go "off the rails".

    int n0 = 0;
    // quicksort indices in descending order of probabilities
    // values smaller than (1 - topp) / (n - 1) cannot be part of the result
    // so for efficiency we crop these out as candidates before sorting
    const float cutoff = (1.0f - topp) / (n - 1);
    for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
        if (probabilities[i] >= cutoff) {
            probindex[n0].index = i;
            probindex[n0].prob = probabilities[i];
            n0++;
        }
    }
    qsort(probindex, n0, sizeof(ProbIndex), compare);

    // truncate the list where cumulative probability exceeds topp
    float cumulative_prob = 0.0f;
    int last_idx = n0 - 1; // in case of rounding errors consider all elements
    for (int i = 0; i < n0; i++) {
        cumulative_prob += probindex[i].prob;
        if (cumulative_prob > topp) {
            last_idx = i;
            break; // we've exceeded topp by including last_idx
        }
    }

    // sample from the truncated list
    float r = random_f32() * cumulative_prob;
    float cdf = 0.0f;
    for (int i = 0; i <= last_idx; i++) {
        cdf += probindex[i].prob;
        if (r < cdf) {
            return probindex[i].index;
        }
    }
    return probindex[last_idx].index; // in case of rounding errors
}


// ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
// int main

void error_usage() {
    fprintf(stderr, "Usage:   run <checkpoint> [options]\n");
    fprintf(stderr, "Example: run model.bin -n 256 -i \"Once upon a time\"\n");
    fprintf(stderr, "Options:\n");
    fprintf(stderr, "  -t <float>  temperature, default 1.0\n");
    fprintf(stderr, "  -p <float>  p value in top-p (nucleus) sampling. default 0.9\n");
    fprintf(stderr, "  -s <int>    random seed, default time(NULL)\n");
    fprintf(stderr, "  -n <int>    number of steps to run for, default 256. 0 = max_seq_len\n");
    fprintf(stderr, "  -i <string> input prompt\n");
    fprintf(stderr, "  -z <string> optional path to custom tokenizer\n");
    exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
}

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {

    // default inits
    char *checkpoint = NULL;  // e.g. out/model.bin
    char *tokenizer = "tokenizer.bin";
    float temperature = 1.0f; // 0.0 = greedy deterministic. 1.0 = original. don't set higher
    float topp = 0.9f;        // top-p in nucleus sampling. 1.0 = off. 0.9 works well, but slower
    rng_seed = 0; // seed rng with time by default
    int steps = 256;          // number of steps to run for
    char *prompt = NULL;      // prompt string

    // poor man's C argparse so we can override the defaults above from the command line
    if (argc >= 2) { checkpoint = argv[1]; } else { error_usage(); }
    for (int i = 2; i < argc; i+=2) {
        // do some basic validation
        if (i + 1 >= argc) { error_usage(); } // must have arg after flag
        if (argv[i][0] != '-') { error_usage(); } // must start with dash
        if (strlen(argv[i]) != 2) { error_usage(); } // must be -x (one dash, one letter)
        // read in the args
        if (argv[i][1] == 't') { temperature = atof(argv[i + 1]); }
        else if (argv[i][1] == 'p') { topp = atof(argv[i + 1]); }
        else if (argv[i][1] == 's') { rng_seed = atoi(argv[i + 1]); }
        else if (argv[i][1] == 'n') { steps = atoi(argv[i + 1]); }
        else if (argv[i][1] == 'i') { prompt = argv[i + 1]; }
        else if (argv[i][1] == 'z') { tokenizer = argv[i + 1]; }
        else { error_usage(); }
    }
    if(rng_seed == 0) { rng_seed =  (unsigned int)time(NULL);}

    // read in the model.bin file
    Config config;
    TransformerWeights weights;
    int fd = 0;         // file descriptor for memory mapping
    float* data = NULL; // memory mapped data pointer
    ssize_t file_size;     // size of the checkpoint file in bytes
    {
        FILE *file = fopen(checkpoint, "rb");
        if (!file) { fprintf(stderr, "Couldn't open file %s\n", checkpoint); return 1; }
        // read in the config header
        if (fread(&config, sizeof(Config), 1, file) != 1) { return 1; }
        // negative vocab size is hacky way of signaling unshared weights. bit yikes.
        int shared_weights = config.vocab_size > 0 ? 1 : 0;
        config.vocab_size = abs(config.vocab_size);
        // figure out the file size
        fseek(file, 0, SEEK_END); // move file pointer to end of file
        file_size = ftell(file); // get the file size, in bytes
        fclose(file);
        // memory map the Transformer weights into the data pointer
        fd = open(checkpoint, O_RDONLY); // open in read only mode
        if (fd == -1) { fprintf(stderr, "open failed!\n"); return 1; }
        data = mmap(NULL, file_size, PROT_READ, MAP_PRIVATE, fd, 0);
        if (data == MAP_FAILED) { fprintf(stderr, "mmap failed!\n"); return 1; }
        float* weights_ptr = data + sizeof(Config)/sizeof(float);
        checkpoint_init_weights(&weights, &config, weights_ptr, shared_weights);
    }
    // right now we cannot run for more than config.seq_len steps
    if (steps <= 0 || steps > config.seq_len) { steps = config.seq_len; }

    // read in the tokenizer .bin file
    char** vocab = (char**)malloc(config.vocab_size * sizeof(char*));
    float* vocab_scores = (float*)malloc(config.vocab_size * sizeof(float));
    unsigned int max_token_length;
    {
        FILE *file = fopen(tokenizer, "rb");
        if (!file) { fprintf(stderr, "couldn't load %s\n", tokenizer); return 1; }
        if (fread(&max_token_length, sizeof(int), 1, file) != 1) { fprintf(stderr, "failed read\n"); return 1; }
        int len;
        for (int i = 0; i < config.vocab_size; i++) {
            if (fread(vocab_scores + i, sizeof(float), 1, file) != 1) { fprintf(stderr, "failed read\n"); return 1;}
            if (fread(&len, sizeof(int), 1, file) != 1) { fprintf(stderr, "failed read\n"); return 1; }
            vocab[i] = (char *)malloc(len + 1);
            if (fread(vocab[i], len, 1, file) != 1) { fprintf(stderr, "failed read\n"); return 1; }
            vocab[i][len] = '\0'; // add the string terminating token
        }
        fclose(file);
    }

    // create and init the application RunState
    RunState state;
    malloc_run_state(&state, &config);

    // process the prompt, if any
    int *prompt_tokens = NULL;
    int num_prompt_tokens = 0;
    if (prompt != NULL) {
        prompt_tokens = (int*)malloc((strlen(prompt)+1) * sizeof(int));
        bpe_encode(prompt, vocab, vocab_scores, config.vocab_size, max_token_length, prompt_tokens, &num_prompt_tokens);
    }

    // start the main loop
    long start = 0;  // used to time our code, only initialized after first iteration
    int next;        // will store the next token in the sequence
    int token = 1;   // init with token 1 (=BOS), as done in Llama-2 sentencepiece tokenizer
    int pos = 0;     // position in the sequence
    while (pos < steps) {

        // forward the transformer to get logits for the next token
        transformer(token, pos, &config, &state, &weights);

        // advance the state state machine
        if(pos < num_prompt_tokens) {
            // if we are still processing the input prompt, force the next prompt token
            next = prompt_tokens[pos];
        } else {
            // sample the next token
            if (temperature == 0.0f) {
                // greedy argmax sampling: take the token with the highest probability
                next = argmax(state.logits, config.vocab_size);
            } else {
                // apply the temperature to the logits
                for (int q=0; q<config.vocab_size; q++) { state.logits[q] /= temperature; }
                // apply softmax to the logits to get the probabilities for next token
                softmax(state.logits, config.vocab_size);
                // we sample from this distribution to get the next token
                if (topp <= 0 || topp >= 1) {
                    // simply sample from the predicted probability distribution
                    next = sample(state.logits, config.vocab_size);
                } else {
                    // top-p (nucleus) sampling, clamping the least likely tokens to zero
                    next = sample_topp(state.logits, config.vocab_size, topp, state.probindex);
                }
            }
        }
        pos++;

        // data-dependent terminating condition: the BOS (1) token delimits sequences
        if (next == 1) { break; }

        // following BOS (1) token, sentencepiece decoder strips any leading whitespace (see PR #89)
        char *token_str = (token == 1 && vocab[next][0] == ' ') ? vocab[next]+1 : vocab[next];
        // careful, some tokens designate raw bytes, and look like e.g. '<0x01>'
        unsigned char byte_val;
        if (sscanf(token_str, "<0x%02hhX>", &byte_val) == 1) {
            // ok this token is a raw byte token, carefuly to only print printable chars or whitespace
            // some of the other bytes can be various control codes, backspace, etc. => skip
            if (isprint(byte_val) || isspace(byte_val)) {
                char byte_piece[2];
                byte_piece[0] = byte_val;
                byte_piece[1] = '\0';
                printf("%s", byte_piece);
            }
        } else {
            printf("%s", token_str);
        }
        fflush(stdout);
        token = next;

        // init the timer here because the first iteration can be slower
        if (start == 0) { start = time_in_ms(); }
    }
    printf("\n");

    // report achieved tok/s (pos-1 because the timer starts after first iteration)
    if (pos > 1) {
        long end = time_in_ms();
        fprintf(stderr, "achieved tok/s: %f\n", (pos-1) / (double)(end-start)*1000);
    }

    // memory and file handles cleanup
    free_run_state(&state);
    for (int i = 0; i < config.vocab_size; i++) { free(vocab[i]); }
    free(vocab);
    free(vocab_scores);
    if (prompt_tokens != NULL) free(prompt_tokens);
    if (data != MAP_FAILED) munmap(data, file_size);
    if (fd != -1) close(fd);
    return 0;
}