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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Science</h1>
<div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
<div id="contentSub"></div>
<div id="jump-to-nav"></div>
<a class="mw-jump-link" href="#mw-head">Jump to navigation</a>
<a class="mw-jump-link" href="#p-search">Jump to search</a>
<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div class="mw-parser-output"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about a branch of knowledge. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Science_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Science (disambiguation)">Science (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks plainlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-title" style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em;padding-bottom:0.1em;"><b>Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">a series</a> on</b></td></tr><tr><th class="navbox-title" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;font-size:175%;padding-top:0; display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Science</a></th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;"><div class="navbox-abovebelow"><span style="font-size:110%;">Essence</span></div></div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-top:0.6em;"><div class="hlist">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">Literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Method</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy</a></li></ul>
</div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;"><div class="navbox-abovebelow"><span style="font-size:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">Branches</a></span></div></div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-top:0.6em;"><div class="hlist">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physical_science" title="Outline of physical science">Physical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">Life</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied</a></li></ul>
</div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"><div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;"><div class="navbox-abovebelow"><div class="hlist hlist-separated" style="font-size:110%;"><ul><li>Society</li></ul></div></div></div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-top:0.6em;"><div class="hlist">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Education</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology</a></li></ul>
</div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="hlist" style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;display:block; margin-top:0.7em; border-top:1px solid #bbf; padding-top:0.15em; border-bottom:1px solid #bbf;">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_science" title="Outline of science">Outline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding-top: 0.6em;margin-top:0; padding-top:0.15em;"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science" title="Template:Science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science" title="Template talk:Science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Science&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:262px;"><a href="/wiki/File:CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/260px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="172" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/390px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg/520px-CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1980" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a> represented as multiple disk-shaped <i>slices</i> across time, which passes from left to right.</div></div></div>
<p><b>Science</b> (from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word <i>scientia</i>, meaning "knowledge")<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">testable</a> <a href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">explanations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Predictions" class="mw-redirect" title="Predictions">predictions</a> about the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EOWilson1999a_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EOWilson1999a-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heilbron_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heilbron-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-webster_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-webster-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>The earliest roots of science can be traced to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> in around 3500 to 3000 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg1-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grant2007a_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grant2007a-6">[6]</a></sup> Their contributions to <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> entered and shaped Greek <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">physical world</a> based on natural causes.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg1-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grant2007a_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grant2007a-6">[6]</a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>, knowledge of <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_classical_antiquity" title="History of science in classical antiquity">Greek conceptions of the world</a> deteriorated in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a><sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg9_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg9-7">[7]</a></sup> but was preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg8_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg8-8">[8]</a></sup> The recovery and assimilation of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek works</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic inquiries</a> into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived "<a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg9_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg9-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg10_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg10-9">[9]</a></sup> which was later transformed by the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> that began in the 16th century<sup id="cite_ref-Principe2011_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Principe2011-10">[10]</a></sup> as <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution#New_ideas" title="Scientific Revolution">new ideas and discoveries</a> departed from <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution#Ancient_and_medieval_background" title="Scientific Revolution">previous Greek conceptions</a> and traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg1990_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg1990-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg14_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg14-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_Encyclopedia_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_Encyclopedia-13">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grant2007c_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grant2007c-14">[14]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the <a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_science" title="19th century in science">19th century</a> that many of the institutional and <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">professional</a> features of science began to take shape;<sup id="cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-15">[15]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lightman_19th_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lightman_19th-17">[17]</a></sup> along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">Modern science</a> is typically divided into three major <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">branches</a> that consist of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>), which study nature in the broadest sense; the <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>), which study individuals and societies; and the <a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">formal sciences</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">theoretical computer science</a>), which study abstract concepts. There is disagreement,<sup id="cite_ref-Bishop1991_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bishop1991-19">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bunge_1998_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunge_1998-20">[20]</a></sup> however, on whether the formal sciences actually constitute a science as they do not rely on <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fetzer2013_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fetzer2013-21">[21]</a></sup> Disciplines that use existing scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> and medicine, are described as <a href="/wiki/Applied_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied sciences">applied sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p>Science is based on <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a>, which is commonly conducted in <a href="/wiki/Academic_institution" title="Academic institution">academic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Research_institute" title="Research institute">research institutions</a> as well as in <a href="/wiki/Government_agency" title="Government agency">government agencies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Company" title="Company">companies</a>. The practical impact of scientific research has led to the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">science policies</a> that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritizing the development of <a href="/wiki/Product_(business)" title="Product (business)">commercial products</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">armaments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">health care</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">environmental protection</a>.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2>Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Early_cultures"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Early cultures</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Classical_antiquity"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Classical antiquity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Medieval_science"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Medieval science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Renaissance_and_early_modern_science"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Renaissance and early modern science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Age_of_Enlightenment"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Age of Enlightenment</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#19th_century"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">19th century</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#20th_century"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">20th century</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#21st_century"><span class="tocnumber">1.8</span> <span class="toctext">21st century</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Branches_of_science"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Branches of science</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Natural_science"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Natural science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Social_science"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Social science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Formal_science"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Formal science</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Scientific_research"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Scientific research</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Scientific_method"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Scientific method</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Verifiability"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Verifiability</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Role_of_mathematics"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Role of mathematics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Philosophy_of_science"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy of science</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Certainty_and_science"><span class="tocnumber">3.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Certainty and science</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Scientific_literature"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Scientific literature</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Practical_impacts"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Practical impacts</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Challenges"><span class="tocnumber">3.6</span> <span class="toctext">Challenges</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Replication_crisis"><span class="tocnumber">3.6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Replication crisis</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Fringe_science,_pseudoscience,_and_junk_science"><span class="tocnumber">3.6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Fringe science, pseudoscience, and junk science</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#Scientific_community"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Scientific community</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Scientists"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Scientists</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#Women_in_science"><span class="tocnumber">4.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Women in science</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Learned_societies"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Learned societies</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Science_and_the_public"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Science and the public</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Science_policy"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Science policy</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><a href="#Funding_of_science"><span class="tocnumber">5.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Funding of science</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Public_awareness_of_science"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Public awareness of science</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Science_journalism"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Science journalism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Politicization_of_science"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Politicization of science</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></div>
<p>Science in a broad sense existed before the <a href="/wiki/Modern_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern era">modern era</a> and in many historical <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilizations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Grant1997_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grant1997-26">[26]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">Modern science</a> is distinct in its <a href="/wiki/Science#Scientific_practice" title="Science">approach</a> and successful in its <a href="/wiki/Science#Literature" title="Science">results</a>, so it now defines what science is in the strictest sense of the term.<sup id="cite_ref-Heilbron_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heilbron-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg1_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg1-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pingree1992_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pingree1992-27">[27]</a></sup> Science in its original sense was a word for a type of knowledge, rather than a specialized word for the pursuit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of knowledge which people can communicate to each other and share. For example, knowledge about the working of natural things was gathered long before recorded history and led to the development of complex abstract thought. This is shown by the construction of complex calendars, techniques for making poisonous plants edible, <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a> at national scale, such as those which harnessed the <a href="/wiki/Floodplain" title="Floodplain">floodplain</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtse" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtse">Yangtse</a> with reservoirs,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> dams, and dikes, and buildings such as the Pyramids. However, no consistent conscious distinction was made between knowledge of such things, which are true in every community, and other types of communal knowledge, such as mythologies and legal systems. <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a> was known in prehistory, and the <a href="/wiki/Vin%C4%8Da_culture" title="Vinča culture">Vinča culture</a> was the earliest known producer of bronze-like alloys. It is thought that early experimentation with heating and mixing of substances over time developed into <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_cultures">Early cultures</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_early_cultures" title="History of science in early cultures">History of science in early cultures</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:112px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg/110px-Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="315" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg/165px-Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg/220px-Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="1686" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Clay models of animal livers dating between the nineteenth and eighteenth centuries BCE, found in the royal palace in <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari, Syria</a></div></div></div>
<p>Neither the words nor the concepts "science" and "nature" were part of the conceptual landscape in the ancient near east.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> The ancient <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamians</a> used knowledge about the properties of various natural chemicals for manufacturing <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faience" title="Faience">faience</a>, glass, soap, metals, <a href="/wiki/Lime_plaster" title="Lime plaster">lime plaster</a>, and waterproofing;<sup id="cite_ref-McIntosh2005_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh2005-30">[30]</a></sup> they also studied <a href="/wiki/Animal_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal physiology">animal physiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Animal_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal behavior">behavior</a> for <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divinatory</a> purposes<sup id="cite_ref-McIntosh2005_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh2005-30">[30]</a></sup> and made extensive records of the movements of astronomical objects for their study of <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> The Mesopotamians had <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian medicine">intense interest in medicine</a><sup id="cite_ref-McIntosh2005_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh2005-30">[30]</a></sup> and the earliest <a href="/wiki/Medical_prescription" title="Medical prescription">medical prescriptions</a> appear in <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2112 BCE – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2004 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> Nonetheless, the Mesopotamians seem to have had little interest in gathering information about the natural world for the mere sake of gathering information<sup id="cite_ref-McIntosh2005_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh2005-30">[30]</a></sup> and mainly only studied scientific subjects which had obvious practical applications or immediate relevance to their religious system.<sup id="cite_ref-McIntosh2005_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh2005-30">[30]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Classical_antiquity">Classical antiquity</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_classical_antiquity" title="History of science in classical antiquity">History of science in classical antiquity</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature (philosophy)</a></div>
<p>In <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, there is no real ancient analog of a modern <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a>. Instead, well-educated, usually upper-class, and almost universally male individuals performed various investigations into nature whenever they could afford the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Lehoux_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehoux-33">[33]</a></sup> Before the invention or discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concept</a> of "<a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Phusis" class="mw-redirect" title="Phusis">phusis</a></i>) by the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Socratic philosopher">Pre-Socratic philosophers</a>, the same words tend to be used to describe the <i>natural</i> "way" in which a plant grows,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>209</span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a>, the precursor of <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a>, was thereby distinguished as the knowledge of nature and things which are true for every community, and the name of the specialized pursuit of such knowledge was <i>philosophy</i> – the realm of the first philosopher-physicists. They were mainly speculators or <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theorists</a>, particularly interested in <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature (artifice or <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>, Greek <i>technē</i>) was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for <a href="/wiki/Artisans" class="mw-redirect" title="Artisans">artisans</a> of lower <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup>
</p><p>The early <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek philosophers</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian school</a>, which was founded by <a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales of Miletus</a> and later continued by his successors <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a>, were the first to attempt to explain <a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_phenomena" title="List of natural phenomena">natural phenomena</a> without relying on the <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Grady_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Grady-37">[37]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a> developed a complex number philosophy<sup id="cite_ref-Burkert1972_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burkert1972-38">[38]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>467–68</span></sup> and contributed significantly to the development of mathematical science.<sup id="cite_ref-Burkert1972_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burkert1972-38">[38]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>465</span></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">theory of atoms</a> was developed by the Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> and his student <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> The Greek doctor <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> established the tradition of systematic medical science<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Touwaide2005_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Touwaide2005-42">[42]</a></sup> and is known as "<a href="/wiki/List_of_persons_considered_father_or_mother_of_a_scientific_field#Medicine_and_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="List of persons considered father or mother of a scientific field">The Father of Medicine</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/170px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/255px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/340px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2275" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, 384–322 BCE, one of the early figures in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>A turning point in the history of early philosophical science was <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>' example of applying philosophy to the study of human matters, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself. The <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a> as documented by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s dialogues is a <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a> method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. This was a reaction to the <a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophist</a> emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>. The Socratic method searches for general, commonly held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinizes them to determine their consistency with other beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> Socrates criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism. Socrates was later, in the words of his <i>Apology</i>, accused of corrupting the youth of Athens because he did "not believe in the gods the state believes in, but in other new spiritual beings". Socrates refuted these claims,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> but was sentenced to death.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span> 30e</span></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> later created a systematic programme of <a href="/wiki/Teleological" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleological">teleological</a> philosophy: Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, according to what types of things they are. In his physics, the Sun goes around the Earth, and many things have it as part of their nature that they are for humans. Each thing has a <a href="/wiki/Formal_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal cause">formal cause</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Final_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Final cause">final cause</a>, and a role in a cosmic order with an <a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">unmoved mover</a>. The Socratics also insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being (a study Aristotle divided into <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>). Aristotle maintained that man knows a thing scientifically "when he possesses a conviction arrived at in a certain way, and when the first principles on which that conviction rests are known to him with certainty".<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Greek astronomer <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a> (310–230 BCE) was the first to propose a <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric model</a> of the universe, with the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> at the center and all the planets orbiting it.<sup id="cite_ref-McClellan2015_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClellan2015-49">[49]</a></sup> Aristarchus's model was widely rejected because it was believed to violate the laws of physics.<sup id="cite_ref-McClellan2015_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClellan2015-49">[49]</a></sup> The inventor and mathematician <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes of Syracuse</a> made major contributions to the beginnings of <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a><sup id="cite_ref-Edwards1979_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards1979-50">[50]</a></sup> and has sometimes been credited as its inventor,<sup id="cite_ref-Edwards1979_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards1979-50">[50]</a></sup> although his proto-calculus lacked several defining features.<sup id="cite_ref-Edwards1979_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards1979-50">[50]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> was a Roman writer and polymath, who wrote the seminal encyclopedia <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Lawson2004_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lawson2004-51">[51]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> dealing with history, geography, medicine, astronomy, earth science, botany, and zoology.<sup id="cite_ref-Lawson2004_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lawson2004-51">[51]</a></sup>
Other scientists or proto-scientists in Antiquity were <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herophilos" title="Herophilos">Herophilos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Medieval_science">Medieval science</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain,_G_Reisch.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Brain%2C_G_Reisch.png/220px-Brain%2C_G_Reisch.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Brain%2C_G_Reisch.png/330px-Brain%2C_G_Reisch.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Brain%2C_G_Reisch.png 2x" data-file-width="436" data-file-height="575" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain,_G_Reisch.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>De potentiis anime sensitive, Gregor Reisch (1504) <i><a href="/wiki/Margarita_philosophica" class="mw-redirect" title="Margarita philosophica">Margarita philosophica</a></i>. Medieval science postulated a <a href="/wiki/Ventricular_system" title="Ventricular system">ventricle</a> of the brain as the location for our <a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">common sense</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>189</span></sup> where the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Forms">forms</a> from our <a href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">sensory systems</a> commingled.</div></div></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Science in the medieval Islamic world</a>, and <a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">European science in the Middle Ages</a></div>
<p>Because of the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> due to the <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a> an intellectual decline took place in the western part of Europe in the 400s. In contrast, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> resisted the attacks from invaders, and preserved and improved upon the learning. <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a>, a Byzantine scholar in the 500s, questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics and to note its flaws.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg7_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg7-55">[55]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>pp.307, 311, 363, 402</span></sup> John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics served as an inspiration to medieval scholars as well as to Galileo Galilei who ten centuries later, during the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, extensively cited Philoponus in his works while making the case for why Aristotelian physics was flawed.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg7_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg7-55">[55]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup>
</p><p>During <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early Middle Ages</a>, the Aristotelian approach to inquiries on natural phenomena was used. Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">four causes</a> prescribed that four "why" questions should be answered in order to explain things scientifically.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> Some ancient knowledge was lost, or in some cases kept in obscurity, during the fall of the Western Roman Empire and periodic political struggles. However, the general fields of science (or "<a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>" as it was called) and much of the general knowledge from the ancient world remained preserved through the works of the early Latin encyclopedists like <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Grant1996_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grant1996-58">[58]</a></sup> However, Aristotle's original texts were eventually lost in Western Europe, and only one text by Plato was widely known, the <i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i>, which was the only Platonic dialogue, and one of the few original works of classical natural philosophy, available to Latin readers in the early Middle Ages. Another original work that gained influence in this period was <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a></i>, which contains a geocentric description of the solar system.
</p><p>During late antiquity, in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine empire">Byzantine empire</a> many Greek classical texts were preserved. Many <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> translations were done by groups such as the Nestorians and Monophysites.<sup id="cite_ref-Grant2007b_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grant2007b-59">[59]</a></sup> They played a role when they translated Greek classical texts into Arabic under the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a>, during which many types of classical learning were preserved and in some cases improved upon.<sup id="cite_ref-Grant2007b_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grant2007b-59">[59]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-euclid,ptolemy_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-euclid,ptolemy-60">[a]</a></sup> In addition, the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sassanid Empire</a> established the medical <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Gondishapur" title="Academy of Gondishapur">Academy of Gondeshapur</a> where Greek, Syriac and Persian physicians established the most important medical center of the ancient world during the 6th and 7th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a> was established in <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a>-era <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a></sup>
where the Islamic study of <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism#Islamic_world" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> flourished. <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a> (801–873) was the first of the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a> philosophers, and is known for his efforts to introduce <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> flourished from this time until the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasions">Mongol invasions</a> of the 13th century. <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhazen), as well as his predecessor <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sahl_(mathematician)" title="Ibn Sahl (mathematician)">Ibn Sahl</a>, was familiar with Ptolemy's <i><a href="/wiki/Optics_(Ptolemy)" title="Optics (Ptolemy)">Optics</a></i>, and used experiments as a means to gain knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[b]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-toomer1964Review_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-toomer1964Review-66">[64]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>463–65</span></sup> Alhazen disproved Ptolemy's theory of vision,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a></sup> but did not make any corresponding changes to Aristotle's metaphysics. Furthermore, doctors and alchemists such as the Persians <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi">Al-Razi</a> also greatly developed the science of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a> with the former writing the <a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">Canon of Medicine</a>, a medical encyclopedia used until the 18th century and the latter discovering multiple compounds like <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">alcohol</a>. Avicenna's canon is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and they both contributed significantly to the practice of experimental medicine, using clinical trials and experiments to back their claims.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a>, Greek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned in ancient times, but in Middle Ages it changed: medical teachers and students at Bologna began to open human bodies, and <a href="/wiki/Mondino_de_Luzzi" title="Mondino de Luzzi">Mondino de Luzzi</a> (c. 1275–1326) produced the first known anatomy textbook based on human dissection.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shwayder_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shwayder-70">[68]</a></sup>
</p><p>By the eleventh century most of Europe had become Christian; stronger monarchies emerged; borders were restored; technological developments and agricultural innovations were made which increased the food supply and population. In addition, classical Greek texts started to be translated from Arabic and Greek into Latin, giving a higher level of scientific discussion in Western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Lindberg9_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindberg9-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p><p>By 1088, the first university in Europe (the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a>) had emerged from its clerical beginnings. Demand for Latin translations grew (for example, from the <a href="/wiki/Toledo_School_of_Translators" title="Toledo School of Translators">Toledo School of Translators</a>); western Europeans began collecting texts written not only in Latin, but also Latin translations from Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew. Manuscript copies of Alhazen's <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a></i> also propagated across Europe before 1240,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>Intro. p. xx</span></sup> as evidenced by its incorporation into Vitello's <i><a href="/wiki/Perspectiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspectiva">Perspectiva</a></i>. Avicenna's <a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">Canon</a> was translated into Latin.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a></sup> In particular, the texts of Aristotle, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[c]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>, preserved in the Houses of Wisdom and also in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[71]</a></sup> were sought amongst Catholic scholars. The influx of ancient texts caused the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</a> and the flourishing of a synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">western Europe</a>, which became a new geographic center of science. An <i>experiment</i> in this period would be understood as a careful process of observing, describing, and classifying.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a></sup> One prominent scientist in this era was <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>. Scholasticism had a strong focus on revelation and <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic reasoning</a>, and gradually fell out of favour over the next centuries, as <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>'s focus on experiments that include direct observation and meticulous documentation slowly increased in importance.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Renaissance_and_early_modern_science">Renaissance and early modern science</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg/220px-Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg/330px-Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="595" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Tycho_instrument_sextant_mounting_19.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a> became more <a href="/wiki/Accurate" class="mw-redirect" title="Accurate">accurate</a> after <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> devised his <a href="/wiki/Measuring_instrument" title="Measuring instrument">scientific instruments</a> for measuring angles between two <a href="/wiki/Celestial_body" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial body">celestial bodies</a>, before the invention of the telescope. <a href="/wiki/Tycho%27s_observational_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Tycho's observational astronomy">Brahe's observations</a> were the basis for <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Kepler's laws">Kepler's laws</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>New developments in optics played a role in the inception of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, both by challenging long-held metaphysical ideas on perception, as well as by contributing to the improvement and development of technology such as the <a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">camera obscura</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a>. Before what we now know as the Renaissance started, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitello" title="Vitello">Vitello</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Peckham" title="John Peckham">John Peckham</a> each built up a scholastic ontology upon a causal chain beginning with sensation, perception, and finally apperception of the individual and universal <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">forms</a> of Aristotle.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a></sup> A model of vision later known as perspectivism was <a href="/wiki/One-point_perspective" class="mw-redirect" title="One-point perspective">exploited and studied</a> by the artists of the Renaissance. This theory uses only three of Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">four causes</a>: formal, material, and final.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith1981_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith1981-77">[74]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the sixteenth century, <a href="/wiki/Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernicus">Copernicus</a> formulated a <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> model of the solar system unlike the <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a></i>. This was based on a theorem that the <a href="/wiki/Orbital_period" title="Orbital period">orbital periods</a> of the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the centre of motion, which he found not to agree with Ptolemy's model.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler</a> and others challenged the notion that the only function of the eye is perception, and shifted the main focus in optics from the eye to the propagation of light.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith1981_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith1981-77">[74]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cohen_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen-79">[76]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>102</span></sup> Kepler modelled the eye as a water-filled glass sphere with an aperture in front of it to model the entrance pupil. He found that all the light from a single point of the scene was imaged at a single point at the back of the glass sphere. The optical chain ends on the retina at the back of the eye.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[d]</a></sup> Kepler is best known, however, for improving Copernicus' heliocentric model through the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion" title="Kepler's laws of planetary motion">Kepler's laws of planetary motion</a>. Kepler did not reject Aristotelian metaphysics, and described his work as a search for the <a href="/wiki/Musica_universalis" title="Musica universalis">Harmony of the Spheres</a>.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei,_1636.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg/220px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg/330px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg/440px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="3176" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei,_1636.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, regarded as the father of modern science.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[77]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span> Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36</span></sup></div></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> made innovative use of experiment and mathematics. However, he became persecuted after Pope Urban VIII blessed Galileo to write about the Copernican system. Galileo had used arguments from the Pope and put them in the voice of the simpleton in the work "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems", which greatly offended Urban VIII.<sup id="cite_ref-Pope_Urban_VIII_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pope_Urban_VIII-82">[78]</a></sup>
</p><p>In Northern Europe, the new technology of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> was widely used to publish many arguments, including some that disagreed widely with contemporary ideas of nature. <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> published philosophical arguments in favor of a new type of non-Aristotelian science. Descartes emphasized individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than geometry should be used in order to study nature. Bacon emphasized the importance of experiment over contemplation. Bacon further questioned the Aristotelian concepts of formal cause and final cause, and promoted the idea that science should study the laws of "simple" natures, such as heat, rather than assuming that there is any specific nature, or "<a href="/wiki/Formal_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal cause">formal cause</a>", of each complex type of thing. This new science began to see itself as describing "<a href="/wiki/Physical_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical law">laws of nature</a>". This updated approach to studies in nature was seen as <a href="/wiki/Mechanistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanistic">mechanistic</a>. Bacon also argued that science should aim for the first time at practical inventions for the improvement of all human life.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Age_of_Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/220px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/330px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="559" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, shown here in a 1689 portrait, made seminal contributions to <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>. Newton shares credit with <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> for the development of calculus.</div></div></div>
<p>As a precursor to the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> succeeded in developing a new physics, now referred to as <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>, which could be confirmed by experiment and explained using mathematics (Newton (1687), <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a></i>). Leibniz also incorporated terms from <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian physics</a>, but now being used in a new non-teleological way, for example, "<a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Potential" title="Potential">potential</a>" (modern versions of Aristotelian "<a href="/wiki/Actuality_and_potentiality" class="mw-redirect" title="Actuality and potentiality"><i>energeia</i> and <i>potentia</i></a>"). This implied a shift in the view of objects: Where Aristotle had noted that objects have certain innate goals that can be actualized, objects were now regarded as devoid of innate goals. In the style of Francis Bacon, Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes for each type of thing.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[79]</a></sup> It is during this period that the word "science" gradually became more commonly used to refer to a <i>type of pursuit</i> of a type of knowledge, especially knowledge of nature – coming close in meaning to the old term "<a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>."
</p><p>During this time, the declared purpose and value of science became producing wealth and <a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">inventions</a> that would improve human lives, in the <a href="/wiki/Economic_materialism" title="Economic materialism">materialistic</a> sense of having more food, clothing, and other things. In <a href="/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum">Bacon's words</a>, "the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond "the fume of subtle, sublime, or pleasing speculation".<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[80]</a></sup>
</p><p>Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Scientific_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific society">scientific societies</a><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[81]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">academies</a>, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popularization</a> of science among an increasingly literate population. <a href="/wiki/Philosophe" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophe">Philosophes</a> introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a></i> and the popularization of <a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a> by <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> as well as by Émilie du Châtelet, the French translator of Newton's <i>Principia</i>.
</p><p>Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[82]</a></sup> however, the century saw significant advancements in the practice of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>; the development of biological <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a>; a new understanding of <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>; and the maturation of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors – Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally – as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[83]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="19th_century">19th century</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg/180px-Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="237" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg/270px-Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg/360px-Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2370" data-file-height="3119" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Darwin_seated_crop.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> in 1854, by then working towards publication of <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a>.</i></div></div></div>
<p>The nineteenth century is a particularly important period in the history of science since during this era many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began to take shape such as: transformation of the life and physical sciences, frequent use of precision instruments, emergence of terms like "biologist", "physicist", "scientist"; slowly moving away from antiquated labels like "natural philosophy" and "natural history", increased professionalization of those studying nature lead to reduction in amateur naturalists, scientists gained cultural authority over many dimensions of society, economic expansion and industrialization of numerous countries, thriving of popular science writings and emergence of science journals.<sup id="cite_ref-Lightman_19th_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lightman_19th-17">[17]</a></sup>
</p><p>Early in the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> suggested the modern <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" title="Atomic theory">atomic theory</a>, based on <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>'s original idea of individible particles called <i>atoms</i>.
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<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Candle-light-animated.gif" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Candle-light-animated.gif/180px-Candle-light-animated.gif" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Candle-light-animated.gif/270px-Candle-light-animated.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Candle-light-animated.gif/360px-Candle-light-animated.gif 2x" data-file-width="468" data-file-height="624" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Candle-light-animated.gif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Combustion and chemical reactions were studied by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> and reported in his lectures before the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Institution" title="Royal Institution">Royal Institution</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/The_Chemical_History_of_a_Candle" title="The Chemical History of a Candle">The Chemical History of a Candle</a></i>, 1861.</div></div></div>
<p>Both <a href="/wiki/John_Herschel" title="John Herschel">John Herschel</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> systematized methodology: the latter coined the term <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Whewell_scientist_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whewell_scientist-88">[84]</a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> he established <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> as the prevailing explanation of biological complexity. His theory of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> provided a natural explanation of how <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> originated, but this only gained wide acceptance a century later.
</p><p>The laws of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">conservation of energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_momentum" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of momentum">conservation of momentum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_mass" title="Conservation of mass">conservation of mass</a> suggested a highly stable universe where there could be little loss of resources. With the advent of the steam engine and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial revolution">industrial revolution</a>, there was, however, an increased understanding that all forms of energy as defined in physics were not equally useful： they did not have the same <a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">energy quality</a>. This realization led to the development of the laws of <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, in which the free energy of the universe is seen as constantly declining: the <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> of a closed universe increases over time.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic theory">electromagnetic theory</a> was also established in the 19th century, and raised new questions which could not easily be answered using Newton's framework. The phenomena that would allow the deconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> were discovered in the last decade of the 19th century: the discovery of <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a> inspired the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>. In the next year came the discovery of the first subatomic particle, the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="20th_century">20th century</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:183px;"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_animation.gif" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/DNA_animation.gif" decoding="async" width="181" height="313" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="181" data-file-height="313" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_animation.gif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> <a href="/wiki/Double_helix" class="mw-redirect" title="Double helix">double helix</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a> that encodes the <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> and many <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>.</div></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Einstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein">Einstein</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a> and the development of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> led to the replacement of classical mechanics with a new physics which contains two parts that describe different types of events in nature.
</p><p>In the first half of the century, the development of <a href="/wiki/Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">antibiotics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artificial_fertilizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial fertilizer">artificial fertilizer</a> made global human <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a> possible. At the same time, the structure of the atom and its nucleus was discovered, leading to the release of "<a href="/wiki/Atomic_energy" title="Atomic energy">atomic energy</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a>). In addition, the extensive use of technological innovation stimulated by the wars of this century led to revolutions in transportation (<a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobiles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>), the development of <a href="/wiki/ICBM" class="mw-redirect" title="ICBM">ICBMs</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Space_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Space race">space race</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">nuclear arms race</a>.
</p><p>The molecular structure of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> was discovered in 1953. The discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background radiation</a> in 1964 led to a rejection of the <a href="/wiki/Steady_State_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Steady State theory">Steady State theory</a> of the universe in favour of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> theory of <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Georges Lemaître</a>.
</p><p>The development of <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a> in the second half of the century allowed the first astronomical measurements done on or near other objects in space, including <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">manned landings on the Moon</a>. <a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescopes</a> lead to numerous discoveries in astronomy and cosmology.
</p><p>Widespread use of <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> in the last quarter of the 20th century combined with <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">communications satellites</a> led to a revolution in <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a> and the rise of the global <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mobile_computing" title="Mobile computing">mobile computing</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a>. The need for mass systematization of long, intertwined causal chains and large amounts of data led to the rise of the fields of <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a> and computer-assisted <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">scientific modelling</a>, which are partly based on the Aristotelian paradigm.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[85]</a></sup>
</p><p>Harmful <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issue" title="Environmental issue">environmental issues</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">ozone depletion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acidification_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Acidification (disambiguation)">acidification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change">climate change</a> came to the public's attention in the same period, and caused the onset of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">environmental science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">environmental technology</a>.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="21st_century">21st century</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="/wiki/File:CMS_Higgs-event.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/180px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="166" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/270px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/360px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="1018" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:CMS_Higgs-event.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A simulated event in the CMS detector of the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a>, featuring a possible appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a> was completed in 2003, determining the sequence of nucleotide base pairs that make up human DNA, and identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[86]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Induced_pluripotent_stem_cell" title="Induced pluripotent stem cell">Induced pluripotent stem cells</a> were developed in 2006, a technology allowing adult cells to be transformed into stem cells capable of giving rise to any cell type found in the body, potentially of huge importance to the field of <a href="/wiki/Regenerative_medicine" title="Regenerative medicine">regenerative medicine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[87]</a></sup>
</p><p>With the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a> in 2012, the last particle predicted by the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> of particle physics was found. In 2015, <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational waves</a>, predicted by <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> a century before, were <a href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves" title="First observation of gravitational waves">first observed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-iop2017oct16_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iop2017oct16-92">[88]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[89]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Branches_of_science">Branches of science</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">Branches of science</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/History_of_science#Modern_science" title="History of science">Modern science</a> is commonly divided into three major <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">branches</a> that consist of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Formal_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal sciences">formal sciences</a>. Each of these branches comprise various specialized yet overlapping scientific <a href="/wiki/Discipline_(academia)" title="Discipline (academia)">disciplines</a> that often possess their own <a href="/wiki/Nomenclature" title="Nomenclature">nomenclature</a> and expertise.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[90]</a></sup> Both natural and social sciences are <a href="/wiki/Empirical_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical science">empirical sciences</a><sup id="cite_ref-Bunge1998_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunge1998-95">[91]</a></sup> as their knowledge are based on <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical observations</a> and are capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-popper2002a_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-popper2002a-96">[92]</a></sup>
</p><p>There are also closely related disciplines that use science, such as <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, which are sometimes described as <a href="/wiki/Applied_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied sciences">applied sciences</a>. The relationships between the branches of science are summarized by the following table.
</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<td rowspan="3">
</td>
<th colspan="3">Science
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal science</a>
</th>
<th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Empirical_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical science">Empirical sciences</a>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural science</a>
</th>
<th><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamental science">Foundation</a>
</th>
<td><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a>; <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a>; <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a>; <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a>; <br /><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a>; <a href="/wiki/Space_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Space science">Space science</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a>; <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a>; <br /><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a>; <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Application</a>
</th>
<td><a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a>; <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">Agricultural science</a>; <br /><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dentistry" title="Dentistry">Dentistry</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy" title="Pharmacy">Pharmacy</a>
</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">Business administration</a>; <br /><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">Pedagogy</a>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Natural_science">Natural science</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science" title="Outline of natural science">Outline of natural science</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg/250px-Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="160" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg/375px-Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg/500px-Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="819" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/False-color" class="mw-redirect" title="False-color">False-color</a> composite of global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance by the <a href="/wiki/SeaWiFS" title="SeaWiFS">SeaWiFS</a> Project, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>/<a href="/wiki/Goddard_Space_Flight_Center" title="Goddard Space Flight Center">Goddard Space Flight Center</a>, and <a href="/wiki/ORBIMAGE" class="mw-redirect" title="ORBIMAGE">ORBIMAGE</a>.</div></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural science</a> is concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">natural phenomena</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a> from <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experimentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimentation">experimentation</a>. It can be divided into two main branches: <a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">life science</a> (or biological science) and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physical_science" title="Outline of physical science">physical science</a>. Physical science is subdivided into branches, including <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">earth science</a>. These two branches may be further divided into more specialized disciplines. Modern natural science is the successor to the <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> that began in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>. <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Bacon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a> debated the benefits of using approaches which were more <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">mathematical</a> and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, <a href="/wiki/Conjecture" title="Conjecture">conjectures</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">presuppositions</a>, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.<sup id="cite_ref-Gauch2003_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gauch2003-97">[93]</a></sup> Systematic data collection, including <a href="/wiki/Discovery_science" title="Discovery science">discovery science</a>, succeeded <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a>, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on.<sup id="cite_ref-Oglivie2008_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oglivie2008-98">[94]</a></sup> Today, "natural history" suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences.<sup id="cite_ref-Wordnet_definition_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wordnet_definition-99">[95]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Social_science">Social science</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline of social science</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg/220px-Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg/330px-Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg/440px-Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="217" data-file-height="217" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>In <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a> model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability and demand.</div></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> is concerned with <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Social_relation" title="Social relation">relationships</a> among <a href="/wiki/Individuals" class="mw-redirect" title="Individuals">individuals</a> within a society. It has many branches that include, but are not limited to, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">communication studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>. Social scientists may adopt various <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical theories">philosophical theories</a> to study individuals and society. For example, <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivist</a> social scientists use methods resembling those of the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a> as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its stricter <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">modern sense</a>. <a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Interpretivist</a> social scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically <a href="/wiki/Falsifiable" class="mw-redirect" title="Falsifiable">falsifiable</a> theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense. In modern academic practice, researchers are often <a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">eclectic</a>, using multiple <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodologies</a> (for instance, by combining both <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative research</a>). The term "<a href="/wiki/Social_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Social research">social research</a>" has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Formal_science">Formal science</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_formal_science" title="Outline of formal science">Outline of formal science</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal science</a> is involved in the study of <a href="/wiki/Formal_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal systems">formal systems</a>. It includes <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[96]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[97]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">theoretical computer science</a>. The formal sciences share similarities with the other two branches by relying on objective, careful, and systematic study of an area of knowledge. They are, however, different from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively on deductive reasoning, without the need for <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a>, to verify their abstract concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-Fetzer2013_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fetzer2013-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bill2007_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bill2007-102">[98]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-popper2002a_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-popper2002a-96">[92]</a></sup> The formal sciences are therefore <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>a priori</i></a> disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether they actually constitute a science.<sup id="cite_ref-Bishop1991_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bishop1991-19">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bunge_1998_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunge_1998-20">[20]</a></sup> Nevertheless, the formal sciences play an important role in the empirical sciences. <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">Calculus</a>, for example, was initially invented to understand <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> in physics.<sup id="cite_ref-MujumdarandTejinder2016_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MujumdarandTejinder2016-103">[99]</a></sup> Natural and social sciences that rely heavily on mathematical applications include <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">mathematical physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">mathematical chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical biology">mathematical biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_finance" title="Mathematical finance">mathematical finance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical economics</a>.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Scientific_research">Scientific research</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">Research</a></div>
<p>Scientific research can be labeled as either basic or applied research. Basic research is the search for knowledge and applied research is the search for solutions to practical problems using this knowledge. Although some scientific research is <a href="/wiki/Applied_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied research">applied research</a> into specific problems, a great deal of our understanding comes from the curiosity-driven undertaking of <a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">basic research</a>. This leads to options for technological advance that were not planned or sometimes even imaginable. This point was made by Michael Faraday when allegedly in response to the question "what is the <i>use</i> of basic research?" he responded: "Sir, what is the use of a new-born child?".<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[100]</a></sup> For example, research into the effects of red light on the human eye's <a href="/wiki/Rod_cell" title="Rod cell">rod cells</a> did not seem to have any practical purpose; eventually, the discovery that our <a href="/wiki/Night_vision" title="Night vision">night vision</a> is not troubled by red light would lead <a href="/wiki/Search_and_rescue" title="Search and rescue">search and rescue</a> teams (among others) to adopt red light in the cockpits of jets and helicopters.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanovich2007_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanovich2007-105">[101]</a></sup> Finally, even basic research can take unexpected turns, and there is some sense in which the scientific method is built to <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method#Role_of_chance_in_discovery" title="Scientific method">harness luck</a>.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Scientific_method">Scientific method</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:IRAS_10082-5647.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/IRAS_10082-5647.jpg/220px-IRAS_10082-5647.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/IRAS_10082-5647.jpg/330px-IRAS_10082-5647.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/IRAS_10082-5647.jpg/440px-IRAS_10082-5647.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1994" data-file-height="1950" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:IRAS_10082-5647.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The central star IRAS 10082-5647 was captured by the Advanced Camera for Surveys aboard the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>Scientific research involves using the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>, which seeks to <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objectively</a> explain the events of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Reproducible" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproducible">reproducible</a> way.<sup id="cite_ref-difrancia1976_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-difrancia1976-106">[102]</a></sup> An explanatory <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> is put forward as explanation using principles such as parsimony (also known as "<a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_Razor" class="mw-redirect" title="Occam's Razor">Occam's Razor</a>") and are generally expected to seek <a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">consilience</a> – fitting well with other accepted facts related to the phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-EOWilson_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EOWilson-107">[103]</a></sup> This new explanation is used to make <a href="/wiki/Falsifiable" class="mw-redirect" title="Falsifiable">falsifiable</a> predictions that are testable by experiment or observation. The predictions are to be posted before a confirming experiment or observation is sought, as proof that no tampering has occurred. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[e]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[f]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-difrancia1976_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-difrancia1976-106">[102]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fara2009_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fara2009-110">[104]</a></sup> This is done partly through observation of natural phenomena, but also through experimentation that tries to simulate natural events under controlled conditions as appropriate to the discipline (in the observational sciences, such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might take the place of a controlled experiment). Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal relationships</a> (to avoid the <a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">correlation fallacy</a>).
</p><p>When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it is either modified or discarded.<sup id="cite_ref-Nola2005k_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nola2005k-111">[105]</a></sup> If the hypothesis survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific theory</a>, a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena. A theory typically describes the behavior of much broader sets of phenomena than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus a theory is a hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses. In addition to testing hypotheses, scientists may also generate a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">model</a>, an attempt to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested, based on observable phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-Nola2005j_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nola2005j-112">[106]</a></sup>
</p><p>While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over another, and so it is important to ensure that science as a whole can eliminate this bias.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[107]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[108]</a></sup> This can be achieved by careful <a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">experimental design</a>, transparency, and a thorough <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> process of the experimental results as well as any conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[109]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[110]</a></sup> After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the results might be.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[111]</a></sup> Taken in its entirety, the scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving while minimizing any effects of subjective bias on the part of its users (especially the <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-backer_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-backer-118">[112]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Verifiability">Verifiability</span></h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/John_Ziman" title="John Ziman">John Ziman</a> points out that <a href="/wiki/Intersubjective_verifiability" title="Intersubjective verifiability">intersubjective verifiability</a> is fundamental to the creation of all scientific knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-ziman1978c_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ziman1978c-119">[113]</a></sup> Ziman shows how scientists can identify patterns to each other across centuries; he refers to this ability as "perceptual consensibility."<sup id="cite_ref-ziman1978c_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ziman1978c-119">[113]</a></sup> He then makes consensibility, leading to consensus, the touchstone of reliable knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-ziman1978e_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ziman1978e-120">[114]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Role_of_mathematics">Role of mathematics</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal science</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg/220px-Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg/330px-Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg/440px-Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="654" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Integral_as_region_under_curve.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Calculus, the mathematics of continuous change, underpins many of the sciences.</div></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a> is essential in the formation of <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypotheses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theories</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Physical_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical law">laws</a><sup id="cite_ref-popper2002e_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-popper2002e-121">[115]</a></sup> in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social</a> sciences. For example, it is used in quantitative <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">scientific modeling</a>, which can generate new hypotheses and predictions to be tested. It is also used extensively in observing and collecting <a href="/wiki/Measurements" class="mw-redirect" title="Measurements">measurements</a>. <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a>, a branch of mathematics, is used to summarize and analyze data, which allow scientists to assess the reliability and variability of their experimental results.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Computational_science" title="Computational science">Computational science</a> applies computing power to <a href="/wiki/Simulation#Computer_simulation" title="Simulation">simulate</a> real-world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. According to the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Industrial_and_Applied_Mathematics" title="Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics">Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics</a>, computation is now as important as theory and experiment in advancing scientific knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">[116]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy_of_science">Philosophy of science</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:JohnLocke.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/220px-JohnLocke.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/330px-JohnLocke.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/440px-JohnLocke.png 2x" data-file-width="984" data-file-height="1138" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:JohnLocke.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>English philosopher and physician <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> (1632–1704), a leading philosopher of British empiricism</div></div></div>
<p>Scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method: (1) that there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers; (2) that this objective reality is governed by natural laws; (3) that these laws can be discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Heilbron_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heilbron-3">[3]</a></sup> Philosophy of science seeks a deep understanding of what these underlying assumptions mean and whether they are valid.
</p><p>The belief that scientific theories should and do represent <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> reality is known as <a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">realism</a>. It can be contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism#Anti-realism_in_science" title="Anti-realism">anti-realism</a>, the view that the success of science does not depend on it being accurate about unobservable entities such as <a href="/wiki/Electrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrons">electrons</a>. One form of anti-realism is <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a>, the belief that the mind or <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> is the most basic essence, and that each mind generates its own reality.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[g]</a></sup> In an idealistic <a href="/wiki/World_view" title="World view">world view</a>, what is true for one mind need not be true for other minds.
</p><p>There are different schools of thought in philosophy of science. The most popular position is <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Galileo1638_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galileo1638-124">[h]</a></sup> which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation and that scientific theories are the result of generalizations from such observations.<sup id="cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003c_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003c-125">[117]</a></sup> Empiricism generally encompasses <a href="/wiki/Inductivism" title="Inductivism">inductivism</a>, a position that tries to explain the way general theories can be justified by the finite number of observations humans can make and hence the finite amount of empirical evidence available to confirm scientific theories. This is necessary because the number of predictions those theories make is infinite, which means that they cannot be known from the finite amount of evidence using <a href="/wiki/Deductive_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deductive logic">deductive logic</a> only. Many versions of empiricism exist, with the predominant ones being <a href="/wiki/Bayesianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayesianism">Bayesianism</a><sup id="cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003o_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003o-126">[118]</a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothetico-deductive method">hypothetico-deductive method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003c_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003c-125">[117]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Karl_Popper2.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Karl_Popper2.jpg/220px-Karl_Popper2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Karl_Popper2.jpg/330px-Karl_Popper2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Karl_Popper2.jpg/440px-Karl_Popper2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="593" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Karl_Popper2.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The Austrian-British philosopher of science Karl Popper (1902–1994) in 1990. He is best known for his work on <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">empirical falsification</a>.</div></div></div>
<p>Empiricism has stood in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, the position originally associated with <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by observation.<sup id="cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003b_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003b-127">[119]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a> is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>. Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories and that the only way a theory can be affected by observation is when it comes in conflict with it.<sup id="cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003d_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003d-128">[120]</a></sup> Popper proposed replacing verifiability with <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiability</a> as the landmark of scientific theories and replacing induction with <a href="/wiki/Falsificationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Falsificationism">falsification</a> as the empirical method.<sup id="cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003d_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003d-128">[120]</a></sup> Popper further claimed that there is actually only one universal method, not specific to science: the negative method of criticism, <a href="/wiki/Trial_and_error" title="Trial and error">trial and error</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003g_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003g-129">[121]</a></sup> It covers all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and art.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[122]</a></sup>
</p><p>Another approach, <a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalism</a>, colloquially termed "shut up and multiply,"<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[123]</a></sup> emphasizes the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[124]</a></sup> It views scientific theories as black boxes with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences, theoretical entities, and logical structure are claimed to be something that should simply be ignored and that scientists shouldn't make a fuss about (see <a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">interpretations of quantum mechanics</a>). Close to instrumentalism is <a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">constructive empiricism</a>, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a> argued that the process of observation and evaluation takes place within a paradigm, a <a href="/wiki/Logically_consistent" class="mw-redirect" title="Logically consistent">logically consistent</a> "portrait" of the world that is consistent with observations made from its framing. He characterized <i>normal science</i> as the process of observation and "puzzle solving" which takes place within a paradigm, whereas <i>revolutionary science</i> occurs when one paradigm overtakes another in a <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shift</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[125]</a></sup> Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations. The choice between paradigms involves setting two or more "portraits" against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. A paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational anomalies arise in the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of them. That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm. For Kuhn, acceptance or rejection of a paradigm is a social process as much as a logical process. Kuhn's position, however, is not one of <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KuhnP206_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KuhnP206-134">[126]</a></sup>
</p><p>Finally, another approach often cited in debates of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific skepticism">scientific skepticism</a> against controversial movements like "<a href="/wiki/Creation_science" title="Creation science">creation science</a>" is <a href="/wiki/Methodological_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodological naturalism">methodological naturalism</a>. Its main point is that a difference between natural and <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> explanations should be made and that science should be restricted methodologically to natural explanations.<sup id="cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003j_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003j-135">[127]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[i]</a></sup> That the restriction is merely methodological (rather than ontological) means that science should not consider supernatural explanations itself, but should not claim them to be wrong either. Instead, supernatural explanations should be left a matter of personal belief <a href="/wiki/Non-overlapping_magisteria" title="Non-overlapping magisteria">outside the scope of science</a>. Methodological naturalism maintains that proper science requires strict adherence to <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> study and independent verification as a process for properly developing and evaluating explanations for <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observable</a> phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137">[128]</a></sup> The absence of these standards, <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal to authority">arguments from authority</a>, biased <a href="/wiki/Observational_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Observational studies">observational studies</a> and other common <a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacies</a> are frequently cited by supporters of methodological naturalism as characteristic of the <a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">non-science</a> they criticize.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Certainty_and_science">Certainty and science</span></h4>
<p>A scientific theory is <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a><sup id="cite_ref-Galileo1638_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Galileo1638-124">[h]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138">[129]</a></sup> and is always open to <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsification</a> if new evidence is presented. That is, no theory is ever considered strictly <a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">certain</a> as science accepts the concept of <a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">fallibilism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139">[j]</a></sup> The philosopher of science <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> sharply distinguished truth from certainty. He wrote that scientific knowledge "consists in the search for truth," but it "is not the search for certainty ... All human knowledge is fallible and therefore uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-Popper1996_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper1996-140">[130]</a></sup>
</p><p>New scientific knowledge rarely results in vast changes in our understanding. According to psychologist <a href="/wiki/Keith_Stanovich" title="Keith Stanovich">Keith Stanovich</a>, it may be the media's overuse of words like "breakthrough" that leads the public to imagine that science is constantly proving everything it thought was true to be false.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanovich2007_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanovich2007-105">[101]</a></sup> While there are such famous cases as the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a> that required a complete reconceptualization, these are extreme exceptions. Knowledge in science is gained by a gradual synthesis of information from different experiments by various <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">researchers</a> across different branches of science; it is more like a climb than a leap.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanovich2007_105-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanovich2007-105">[101]</a></sup> Theories vary in the extent to which they have been tested and verified, as well as their acceptance in the scientific community.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141">[k]</a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">the theory of evolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Relativity_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativity theory">relativity theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory</a> still bear the name "theory" even though, in practice, they are considered <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">factual</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142">[131]</a></sup>
Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Barry_Stroud" title="Barry Stroud">Barry Stroud</a> adds that, although the best definition for "<a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>" is contested, being <a href="/wiki/Skeptical" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptical">skeptical</a> and entertaining the <i>possibility</i> that one is incorrect is compatible with being correct. Therefore, scientists adhering to proper scientific approaches will doubt themselves even once they possess the <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143">[132]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Fallibilist" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallibilist">fallibilist</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">C. S. Peirce</a> argued that inquiry is the struggle to resolve actual doubt and that merely quarrelsome, verbal, or <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_doubt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbolic doubt">hyperbolic doubt</a> is fruitless<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144">[133]</a></sup> – but also that the inquirer should try to attain genuine doubt rather than resting uncritically on common sense.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145">[134]</a></sup> He held that the successful sciences trust not to any single chain of inference (no stronger than its weakest link) but to the cable of multiple and various arguments intimately connected.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146">[135]</a></sup>
</p><p>Stanovich also asserts that science avoids searching for a "magic bullet"; it avoids the <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_single_cause" title="Fallacy of the single cause">single-cause fallacy</a>. This means a scientist would not ask merely "What is <i>the</i> cause of ...", but rather "What <i>are</i> the most significant <i>causes</i> of ...". This is especially the case in the more macroscopic fields of science (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">physical cosmology</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Stanovich2007_105-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanovich2007-105">[101]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">Research</a> often analyzes few factors at once, but these are always added to the long list of factors that are most important to consider.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanovich2007_105-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanovich2007-105">[101]</a></sup> For example, knowing the details of only a person's genetics, or their history and upbringing, or the current situation may not explain a behavior, but a deep understanding of all these variables combined can be very predictive.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Scientific_literature">Scientific literature</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">Scientific literature</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Science_Vol._1_(1880).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Science_Vol._1_%281880%29.jpg/220px-Science_Vol._1_%281880%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Science_Vol._1_%281880%29.jpg/330px-Science_Vol._1_%281880%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Science_Vol._1_%281880%29.jpg/440px-Science_Vol._1_%281880%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1886" data-file-height="2580" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Science_Vol._1_(1880).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Cover of the first volume of the scientific journal <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i> in 1880.</div></div></div>
<p>Scientific research is published in an enormous range of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">scientific literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147">[136]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journal" title="Scientific journal">Scientific journals</a> communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions, serving as an archival record of science. The first scientific journals, <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_des_S%C3%A7avans" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal des Sçavans">Journal des Sçavans</a></i> followed by the <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions</a></i>, began publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased. In 1981, one estimate for the number of scientific and technical journals in publication was 11,500.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148">[137]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Library_of_Medicine" title="United States National Library of Medicine">United States National Library of Medicine</a> currently indexes 5,516 journals that contain articles on topics related to the life sciences. Although the journals are in 39 languages, 91 percent of the indexed articles are published in English.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149">[138]</a></sup>
</p><p>Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific paper">scientific paper</a>. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is generally considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider populace.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/List_of_science_magazines" title="List of science magazines">Science magazines</a> such as <i><a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Science_%26_Vie" title="Science & Vie">Science & Vie</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i> cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research. <a href="/wiki/Science_book" title="Science book">Science books</a> engage the interest of many more people. Tangentially, the <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> genre, primarily fantastic in nature, engages the public imagination and transmits the ideas, if not the methods, of science.
</p><p>Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a> or more specifically, <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, include the <i>Creative Writing Science</i> resource developed through the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Literary_Fund" title="Royal Literary Fund">Royal Literary Fund</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150">[139]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Practical_impacts">Practical impacts</span></h3>
<p>Discoveries in fundamental science can be world-changing. For example:
</p>
<dl><dd><table class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Research</th>
<th>Impact
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">Static electricity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> (<i>c.</i> 1600)<br /><a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">Electric current</a> (18th century)</td>
<td>All electric appliances, dynamos, electric power stations, modern <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Electric_lighting" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric lighting">electric lighting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_heating" title="Electric heating">electric heating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation" title="Transcranial magnetic stimulation">transcranial magnetic stimulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deep_brain_stimulation" title="Deep brain stimulation">deep brain stimulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_tape" title="Magnetic tape">magnetic tape</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loudspeaker" title="Loudspeaker">loudspeaker</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lightning_rod" title="Lightning rod">lightning rod</a>.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">Diffraction</a> (1665)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a>, hence <a href="/wiki/Fiber_optic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber optic">fiber optic</a> cable (1840s), modern <a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable" title="Submarine communications cable">intercontinental communications</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cable_TV" class="mw-redirect" title="Cable TV">cable TV</a> and internet.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory</a> (1700)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a>, leading to decreased transmission of infectious diseases; <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</a>, leading to techniques for disease diagnosis and <a href="/wiki/Targeted_therapy" title="Targeted therapy">targeted</a> anticancer therapies.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a> (1798)</td>
<td>Leading to the elimination of most infectious diseases from developed countries and the worldwide eradication of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect" title="Photovoltaic effect">Photovoltaic effect</a> (1839)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cells</a> (1883), hence <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar power</a>, solar powered <a href="/wiki/Watch" title="Watch">watches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator">calculators</a> and other devices.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="nowrap">The strange orbit of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a> (1859) and other research</span><br />leading to <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special</a> (1905) and <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> (1916)</td>
<td>Satellite-based technology such as <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a> (1973), <a href="/wiki/Satnav" class="mw-redirect" title="Satnav">satnav</a> and <a href="/wiki/Satellite_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite communications">satellite communications</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nasa2004_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa2004-151">[l]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a> (1887)</td>
<td>Radio had become used in innumerable ways beyond its better-known areas of <a href="/wiki/Telephony" title="Telephony">telephony</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcast</a> <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> (1927) and <a href="/wiki/Radio_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio station">radio</a> (1906) <a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">entertainment</a>. Other uses included – <a href="/wiki/Emergency_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency services">emergency services</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weather_prediction" class="mw-redirect" title="Weather prediction">weather prediction</a>), <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wireless_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless communications">wireless communications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">geophysics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wireless_networking" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless networking">networking</a>. Radio waves also led researchers to adjacent frequencies such as <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwaves</a>, used worldwide for heating and cooking food.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a> (1896) and <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a> (1932)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a> treatment (1896), <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">Radiometric dating</a> (1905), <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a> (1942) and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">weapons</a> (1945), <a href="/wiki/Mineral_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineral exploration">mineral exploration</a>, <a href="/wiki/PET_scans" class="mw-redirect" title="PET scans">PET scans</a> (1961), and <a href="/wiki/Medical_research" title="Medical research">medical research</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Isotopic_labeling" title="Isotopic labeling">isotopic labeling</a>).
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">X-rays</a> (1896)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed tomography">computed tomography</a>.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> (1900)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductor devices</a> (1906), hence modern <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a> including the integration with wireless devices: the <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phone</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-nasa2004_151-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa2004-151">[l]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/LED_lamp" title="LED lamp">LED lamps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">lasers</a>.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Plastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastics">Plastics</a> (1907)</td>
<td>Starting with <a href="/wiki/Bakelite" title="Bakelite">Bakelite</a>, many types of artificial polymers for numerous applications in industry and daily life.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">Antibiotics</a> (1880s, 1928)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Salvarsan" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvarsan">Salvarsan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">Penicillin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doxycycline" title="Doxycycline">doxycycline</a> etc.
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance">Nuclear magnetic resonance</a> (1930s)</td>
<td><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy</a> (1946), <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a> (1971), <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (1990s).
</td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Challenges">Challenges</span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Replication_crisis">Replication crisis</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Replication_crisis" title="Replication crisis">Replication crisis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></div>
<p>The replication crisis is an ongoing <a href="/wiki/Methodological" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodological">methodological</a> crisis primarily affecting parts of the <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Life_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Life science">life sciences</a> in which scholars have found that the results of many scientific studies are difficult or impossible to <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">replicate or reproduce</a> on subsequent investigation, either by independent researchers or by the original researchers themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152">[140]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Why_'Statistical_Significance'_Is_Often_Insignificant_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Why_'Statistical_Significance'_Is_Often_Insignificant-153">[141]</a></sup> The crisis has long-standing roots; the phrase was coined in the early 2010s<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154">[142]</a></sup> as part of a growing awareness of the problem. The replication crisis represents an important body of research in <a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">metascience</a>, which aims to improve the quality of all scientific research while reducing waste.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155">[143]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span id="Fringe_science.2C_pseudoscience.2C_and_junk_science"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Fringe_science,_pseudoscience,_and_junk_science">Fringe science, pseudoscience, and junk science</span></h4>
<p>An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim a legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">fringe science</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Junk_science" title="Junk science">junk science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156">[m]</a></sup> Physicist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> coined the term "<a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult_science" title="Cargo cult science">cargo cult science</a>" for cases in which researchers believe they are doing science because their activities have the outward appearance of science but actually lack the "kind of utter honesty" that allows their results to be rigorously evaluated.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157">[144]</a></sup> Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories. Science has been described as "the most important tool" for separating valid claims from invalid ones.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158">[145]</a></sup>
</p><p>There can also be an element of political or ideological bias on all sides of scientific debates. Sometimes, research may be characterized as "bad science," research that may be well-intended but is actually incorrect, obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas. The term "<a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">scientific misconduct</a>" refers to situations such as where researchers have intentionally misrepresented their published data or have purposely given credit for a discovery to the wrong person.<sup id="cite_ref-COPE1999PDF_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-COPE1999PDF-159">[146]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Scientific_community">Scientific community</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">Scientific community</a></div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">scientific community</a> is a group of all interacting scientists, along with their respective societies and institutions.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Scientists">Scientists</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">Scientist</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg/220px-Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg/330px-Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg/440px-Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2523" data-file-height="3313" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>German-born scientist <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> (1879–1955) developed the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">theory of relativity</a>. He also won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1921 for his work in <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">theoretical physics</a>.</div></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">Scientists</a> are individuals who conduct <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific research</a> to advance knowledge in an area of interest.<sup id="cite_ref-eowilsonfoundation_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eowilsonfoundation-160">[147]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-researchcouncil_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-researchcouncil-161">[148]</a></sup> The term <i>scientist</i> was coined by <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> in 1833. In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an <a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">academic setting</a> and upon completion, attain an <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">academic degree</a>, with the highest degree being a <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctorate</a> such as a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a> (PhD),<sup id="cite_ref-Cyranoski2011_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cyranoski2011-162">[149]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a> (MD), or <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Engineering" title="Doctor of Engineering">Doctor of Engineering</a> (DEng). Many scientists pursue careers in various <a href="/wiki/Sector_(economic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sector (economic)">sectors of the economy</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">academia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industry" title="Industry">industry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Administration_(government)" title="Administration (government)">government</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nonprofit_organization" title="Nonprofit organization">nonprofit organizations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kwok2017_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kwok2017-163">[150]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Editorial2017a_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Editorial2017a-164">[151]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Woolston2017_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woolston2017-165">[152]</a></sup>
</p><p>Scientists exhibit a strong curiosity about <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>, with some scientists having a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of health, nations, environment, or industries. Other motivations include recognition by their peers and prestige. The <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a>, a widely regarded prestigious award,<sup id="cite_ref-Stockton2014_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stockton2014-166">[153]</a></sup> is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Women_in_science">Women in science</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">Women in STEM fields</a></div>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg/220px-Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg/330px-Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg/440px-Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1460" data-file-height="1984" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Marie_Curie_c1920.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> was the first person to be awarded two <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prizes</a>: <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a> in 1903 and <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a> in 1911.<sup id="cite_ref-NobelFacts_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NobelFacts-167">[154]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>Science has historically been a male-dominated field, with some notable exceptions.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168">[n]</a></sup> Women faced considerable discrimination in science, much as they did in other areas of male-dominated societies, such as frequently being passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169">[o]</a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Christine_Ladd-Franklin" title="Christine Ladd-Franklin">Christine Ladd</a> (1847–1930) was able to enter a PhD program as "C. Ladd"; Christine "Kitty" Ladd completed the requirements in 1882, but was awarded her degree only in 1926, after a career which spanned the algebra of logic (see <a href="/wiki/Truth_table#Truth_table_for_all_binary_logical_operators" title="Truth table">truth table</a>), color vision, and psychology. Her work preceded notable researchers like <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>. The achievements of women in science have been attributed to their defiance of their traditional role as laborers within the <a href="/wiki/Separate_spheres" title="Separate spheres">domestic sphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170">[155]</a></sup>
</p><p>In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and elimination of institutional discrimination on the basis of sex greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remain in some fields; in the early 21st century over half of new biologists were female, while 80% of PhDs in physics are given to men.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the early part of the 21st century, women in the United States earned 50.3% of bachelor's degrees, 45.6% of master's degrees, and 40.7% of PhDs in science and engineering fields. They earned more than half of the degrees in psychology (about 70%), social sciences (about 50%), and biology (about 50-60%) but earned less than half the degrees in the physical sciences, earth sciences, mathematics, engineering, and computer science.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171">[156]</a></sup> Lifestyle choice also plays a major role in female engagement in science; women with young children are 28% less likely to take tenure-track positions due to work-life balance issues,<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172">[157]</a></sup> and female graduate students' interest in careers in research declines dramatically over the course of graduate school, whereas that of their male colleagues remains unchanged.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173">[158]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Learned_societies">Learned societies</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Learned_society" title="Learned society">Learned society</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:370px;"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Royal_Society_1952_London_no_annotation.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/The_Royal_Society_1952_London_no_annotation.jpg/368px-The_Royal_Society_1952_London_no_annotation.jpg" decoding="async" width="368" height="250" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/The_Royal_Society_1952_London_no_annotation.jpg/552px-The_Royal_Society_1952_London_no_annotation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/The_Royal_Society_1952_London_no_annotation.jpg/736px-The_Royal_Society_1952_London_no_annotation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="750" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Royal_Society_1952_London_no_annotation.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Physicists in front of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> building in London (1952).</div></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Learned_society" title="Learned society">Learned societies</a> for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174">[159]</a></sup> Many scientists belong to a learned society that promotes their respective scientific <a href="/wiki/Discipline_(academia)" title="Discipline (academia)">discipline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">profession</a>, or group of related disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175">[160]</a></sup> Membership may be open to all, may require possession of some scientific credentials, or may be an honor conferred by election.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-176">[161]</a></sup> Most scientific societies are <a href="/wiki/Non-profit_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-profit organization">non-profit organizations</a>, and many are <a href="/wiki/Professional_association" title="Professional association">professional associations</a>. Their activities typically include holding regular <a href="/wiki/Academic_conference" title="Academic conference">conferences</a> for the presentation and discussion of new research results and publishing or sponsoring <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">academic journals</a> in their discipline. Some also act as <a href="/wiki/Professional_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional bodies">professional bodies</a>, regulating the activities of their members in the public interest or the collective interest of the membership. Scholars in the <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of science">sociology of science</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (September 2014)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> argue that learned societies are of key importance and their formation assists in the emergence and development of new disciplines or professions.
</p><p>The professionalization of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly enabled by the creation of distinguished <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_sciences" title="Academy of sciences">academy of sciences</a> in a number of countries such as the Italian <i lang="it" title="Italian language text"><a href="/wiki/Accademia_dei_Lincei" title="Accademia dei Lincei">Accademia dei Lincei</a></i> in 1603,<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177">[162]</a></sup> the British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> in 1660, the French <i lang="fr" title="French language text"><a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie des Sciences">Académie des Sciences</a></i> in 1666,<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178">[163]</a></sup> the American <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> in 1863, the German <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaiser Wilhelm Institute">Kaiser Wilhelm Institute</a> in 1911, and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Chinese Academy of Sciences">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> in 1928. International scientific organizations, such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Council_for_Science" title="International Council for Science">International Council for Science</a>, have since been formed to promote cooperation between the scientific communities of different nations.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Science_and_the_public">Science and the public</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Science and society" redirects here. For the academic journal, see <a href="/wiki/Science_%26_Society" title="Science & Society">Science & Society</a>.</div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Science_policy">Science policy</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_policy" title="History of science policy">History of science policy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economics_of_science" title="Economics of science">Economics of science</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:UN-Science-Policy-Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/UN-Science-Policy-Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg/220px-UN-Science-Policy-Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/UN-Science-Policy-Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg/330px-UN-Science-Policy-Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/UN-Science-Policy-Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg/440px-UN-Science-Policy-Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:UN-Science-Policy-Business_Forum_on_Environment.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The United Nations <i>Global Science-Policy-Business Forum on the Environment</i> in Nairobi, Kenya (2017).</div></div></div>
<p>Science policy is an area of <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a> concerned with the policies that affect the conduct of the scientific enterprise, including <a href="/wiki/Research_funding" class="mw-redirect" title="Research funding">research funding</a>, often in pursuance of other national policy goals such as technological innovation to promote commercial product development, weapons development, health care and environmental monitoring. Science policy also refers to the act of applying scientific knowledge and consensus to the development of public policies. Science policy thus deals with the entire domain of issues that involve the natural sciences. In accordance with <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a> being concerned about the well-being of its citizens, science policy's goal is to consider how science and technology can best serve the public.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a> <a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">policy</a> has influenced the funding of <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a> and science for thousands of years, particularly within civilizations with highly organized governments such as <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">imperial China</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. Prominent historical examples include the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</a>, completed over the course of two millennia through the state support of <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history" title="Dynasties in Chinese history">several dynasties</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canal_(China)" title="Grand Canal (China)">Grand Canal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze River</a>, an immense feat of <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">hydraulic engineering</a> begun by <a href="/wiki/Sunshu_Ao" title="Sunshu Ao">Sunshu Ao</a> (孫叔敖 7th c. BCE), <a href="/wiki/Ximen_Bao" title="Ximen Bao">Ximen Bao</a> (西門豹 5th c.BCE), and Shi Chi (4th c. BCE). This construction dates from the 6th century BCE under the <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui Dynasty</a> and is still in use today. In China, such state-supported infrastructure and scientific research projects date at least from the time of the <a href="/wiki/Mohists" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohists">Mohists</a>, who inspired the study of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> during the period of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a> and the study of defensive fortifications like the Great Wall of China during the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>.
</p><p>Public policy can directly affect the funding of <a href="/wiki/Capital_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital equipment">capital equipment</a> and intellectual infrastructure for industrial research by providing tax incentives to those organizations that fund research. <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a>, director of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Scientific_Research_and_Development" title="Office of Scientific Research and Development">Office of Scientific Research and Development</a> for the United States government, the forerunner of the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>, wrote in July 1945 that "Science is a proper concern of government."<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179">[164]</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Funding_of_science">Funding of science</span></h4>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding of science</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:CSIRO_Main_Entomology_Building_-_Central_Block.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/CSIRO_Main_Entomology_Building_-_Central_Block.jpg/220px-CSIRO_Main_Entomology_Building_-_Central_Block.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/CSIRO_Main_Entomology_Building_-_Central_Block.jpg/330px-CSIRO_Main_Entomology_Building_-_Central_Block.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/CSIRO_Main_Entomology_Building_-_Central_Block.jpg/440px-CSIRO_Main_Entomology_Building_-_Central_Block.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:CSIRO_Main_Entomology_Building_-_Central_Block.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="/wiki/CSIRO" title="CSIRO">Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation</a> (CSIRO) Main Entomology Building in Australia</div></div></div>
<p>Scientific research is often funded through a competitive process in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a> is between 1.5% and 3% of <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OECD2008_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OECD2008-180">[165]</a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a>, around two-thirds of <a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by <a href="/wiki/Universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Universities">universities</a> and government. The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>. Similarly, with some exceptions (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>) government provides the bulk of the funds for <a href="/wiki/Basic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic science">basic scientific research</a>. Many governments have dedicated agencies to support scientific research. Prominent scientific organizations include the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, the <a href="/wiki/CONICET" class="mw-redirect" title="CONICET">National Scientific and Technical Research Council</a> in Argentina, <a href="/wiki/CSIRO" title="CSIRO">Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation</a> (CSIRO) in Australia, <i lang="fr" title="French language text"><a href="/wiki/Centre_national_de_la_recherche_scientifique" title="Centre national de la recherche scientifique">Centre national de la recherche scientifique</a></i> in France, the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Society" title="Max Planck Society">Max Planck Society</a> and <i lang="de" title="German language text"><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Forschungsgemeinschaft" title="Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft">Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft</a></i> in Germany, and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_National_Research_Council" title="Spanish National Research Council">CSIC</a> in Spain. In commercial research and development, all but the most research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialisation possibilities rather than "<a href="/wiki/Blue_skies_research" title="Blue skies research">blue-sky</a>" ideas or technologies (such as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a>).
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Public_awareness_of_science">Public awareness of science</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science" title="Public awareness of science">Public awareness of science</a></div>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Science_outreach" title="Science outreach">Science outreach</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Science communication</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG/250px-Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="184" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG/375px-Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG/500px-Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4030" data-file-height="2969" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Dinosaur_exhibit_-_Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_DSC01881.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Dinosaur exhibit in the <a href="/wiki/Houston_Museum_of_Natural_Science" title="Houston Museum of Natural Science">Houston Museum of Natural Science</a></div></div></div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science" title="Public awareness of science">public awareness of science</a> relates to the attitudes, behaviors, opinions, and activities that make up the relations between science and the general public. it integrates various themes and activities such as <a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">science communication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_museum" title="Science museum">science museums</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_festival" title="Science festival">science festivals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_fair" title="Science fair">science fairs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Science_in_popular_culture" title="Science in popular culture">science in popular culture</a>. Social scientists have devised various metrics to measure the public understanding of science such as factual knowledge, self-reported knowledge, and structural knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-Ladwig_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ladwig-181">[166]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eveland_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eveland-182">[167]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Science_journalism">Science journalism</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Science_journalism" title="Science journalism">Science journalism</a></div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass media</a> face a number of pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_debate" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific debate">scientific debate</a> may require considerable expertise regarding the matter.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183">[168]</a></sup> Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even <a href="/wiki/Beat_reporter" class="mw-redirect" title="Beat reporter">beat reporters</a> who know a great deal about certain scientific issues may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to cover.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184">[169]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185">[170]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Politicization_of_science">Politicization of science</span></h3>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Cook_et_al._(2016)_Studies_consensus.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Cook_et_al._%282016%29_Studies_consensus.jpg/300px-Cook_et_al._%282016%29_Studies_consensus.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Cook_et_al._%282016%29_Studies_consensus.jpg/450px-Cook_et_al._%282016%29_Studies_consensus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Cook_et_al._%282016%29_Studies_consensus.jpg/600px-Cook_et_al._%282016%29_Studies_consensus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Cook_et_al._(2016)_Studies_consensus.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Results of seven papers from 2004–2015 assessing the overwhelming scientific consensus on man-made global warming (see <a href="/wiki/Surveys_of_scientists%27_views_on_climate_change" title="Surveys of scientists' views on climate change">Surveys of scientists' views on climate change</a>), in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_controversy" title="Global warming controversy">political controversy over this issue</a>, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_global_warming#United_States" title="Public opinion on global warming">United States</a>.</div></div></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a> occurs when <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Advocacy_group" title="Advocacy group">advocacy groups</a> use legal or economic pressure to influence the findings of scientific research or the way it is disseminated, reported, or interpreted. Many factors can act as facets of the politicization of science such as <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populist</a> <a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">anti-intellectualism</a>, perceived threats to religious beliefs, <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernist</a> <a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">subjectivism</a>, and fear for business interests.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186">[171]</a></sup> Politicization of science is usually accomplished when scientific information is presented in a way that emphasizes the uncertainty associated with the scientific evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187">[172]</a></sup> Tactics such as shifting conversation, failing to acknowledge facts, and capitalizing on doubt of scientific consensus have been used to gain more attention for views that have been undermined by scientific evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Freudenberg_2008_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freudenberg_2008-188">[173]</a></sup> Examples of issues that have involved the politicization of science include the <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_controversy" title="Global warming controversy">global warming controversy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_pesticides" title="Health effects of pesticides">health effects of pesticides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_tobacco" title="Health effects of tobacco">health effects of tobacco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Freudenberg_2008_188-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freudenberg_2008-188">[173]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-van_Der_Linden2017_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van_Der_Linden2017-189">[174]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiquarian_science_books" title="Antiquarian science books">Antiquarian science books</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_timeline" title="Template:Human timeline">Human timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science" title="Index of branches of science">Index of branches of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_timeline" title="Template:Life timeline">Life timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_scientific_occupations" title="List of scientific occupations">List of scientific occupations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Template:Nature_timeline" title="Template:Nature timeline">Nature timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_science" title="Outline of science">Outline of science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pathological_science" title="Pathological science">Pathological science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_popular_culture" title="Science in popular culture">Science in popular culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science wars</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">Scientific dissent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wissenschaft" title="Wissenschaft">Wissenschaft</a> – all areas of scholarly study</li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span></h2>
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: lower-alpha;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-euclid,ptolemy-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-euclid,ptolemy_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alhacen had access to the optics books of Euclid and Ptolemy, as is shown by the title of his lost work <i>A Book in which I have Summarized the Science of Optics from the Two Books of Euclid and Ptolemy, to which I have added the Notions of the First Discourse which is Missing from Ptolemy's Book</i> From <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Usaibia" title="Ibn Abi Usaibia">Ibn Abi Usaibia</a>'s catalog, as cited in (<a href="#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith 2001</a>)<sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span><b>91</b>(vol .1), p. xv</span></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"[Ibn al-Haytham] followed Ptolemy's bridge building ... into a grand synthesis of light and vision. Part of his effort consisted in devising ranges of experiments, of a kind probed before but now undertaken on larger scale."— <a href="#CITEREFCohen2010">Cohen 2010</a>, p. 59</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The translator, <a href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona" title="Gerard of Cremona">Gerard of Cremona</a> (c. 1114–1187), inspired by his love of the <a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a>, came to Toledo, where he knew he could find the Almagest in Arabic. There he found Arabic books of every description, and learned Arabic in order to translate these books into Latin, being aware of 'the poverty of the Latins'. —As cited by <cite class="citation journal">Burnett, Charles (2002). "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century". <i>Science in Context</i>. <b>14</b> (1–2): 249–88. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1017%2FS0269889701000096">10.1017/S0269889701000096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+in+Context&rft.atitle=The+Coherence+of+the+Arabic-Latin+Translation+Program+in+Toledo+in+the+Twelfth+Century&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=249-88&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0269889701000096&rft.aulast=Burnett&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886058088">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}</style></span>
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<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kepler, Johannes (1604) <i>Ad Vitellionem paralipomena, quibus astronomiae pars opticae traditur</i> (Supplements to Witelo, in which the optical part of astronomy is treated) as cited in <cite class="citation journal">Smith, A. Mark (January 1, 2004). "What Is the History of Medieval Optics Really about?". <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>148</b> (2): 180–94. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1558283">1558283</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15338543">15338543</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=What+Is+the+History+of+Medieval+Optics+Really+about%3F&rft.volume=148&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=180-94&rft.date=2004-01-01&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1558283&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15338543&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/>
<ul><li>The full title translation is from p. 60 of James R. Voelkel (2001) <i>Johannes Kepler and the New Astronomy</i> Oxford University Press. Kepler was driven to this experiment after observing the partial solar eclipse at Graz, July 10, 1600. He used Tycho Brahe's method of observation, which was to project the image of the Sun on a piece of paper through a pinhole aperture, instead of looking directly at the Sun. He disagreed with Brahe's conclusion that total eclipses of the Sun were impossible, because there were historical accounts of total eclipses. Instead he deduced that the size of the aperture controls the sharpness of the projected image (the larger the aperture, the more accurate the image – this fact is now fundamental for optical system design). Voelkel, p. 61, notes that Kepler's experiments produced the first correct account of vision and the eye, because he realized he could not accurately write about astronomical observation by ignoring the eye.</li></ul>
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFdi_Francia1976">di Francia 1976</a>, pp. 4–5: "One learns in a laboratory; one learns how to make experiments only by experimenting, and one learns how to work with his hands only by using them. The first and fundamental form of experimentation in physics is to teach young people to work with their hands. Then they should be taken into a laboratory and taught to work with measuring instruments – each student carrying out real experiments in physics. This form of teaching is indispensable and cannot be read in a book."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFara2009">Fara 2009</a>, p. 204: "Whatever their discipline, scientists claimed to share a common scientific method that ... distinguished them from non-scientists."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This realization is the topic of <a href="/wiki/Intersubjective_verifiability" title="Intersubjective verifiability">intersubjective verifiability</a>, as recounted, for example, by <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a> (1949, 1965) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/naturalphilosoph032159mbp/naturalphilosoph032159mbp_djvu.txt"><i>Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance</i></a>, who points out that all knowledge, including natural or social science, is also subjective. p. 162: "Thus it dawned upon me that fundamentally everything is subjective, everything without exception. That was a shock."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Galileo1638-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Galileo1638_124-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Galileo1638_124-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">In his investigation of the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_falling_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of falling bodies">law of falling bodies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a> (1638) serves as example for scientific investigation: <i><a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" title="Two New Sciences">Two New Sciences</a></i> "A piece of wooden moulding or scantling, about 12 cubits long, half a cubit wide, and three finger-breadths thick, was taken; on its edge was cut a channel a little more than one finger in breadth; having made this groove very straight, smooth, and polished, and having lined it with parchment, also as smooth and polished as possible, we rolled along it a hard, smooth, and very round bronze ball. Having placed this board in a sloping position, by lifting one end some one or two cubits above the other, we rolled the ball, as I was just saying, along the channel, noting, in a manner presently to be described, the time required to make the descent. We ... now rolled the ball only one-quarter the length of the channel; and having measured the time of its descent, we found it precisely one-half of the former. Next we tried other distances, comparing the time for the whole length with that for the half, or with that for two-thirds, or three-fourths, or indeed for any fraction; in such experiments, repeated many, many, times." Galileo solved the problem of time measurement by weighing a jet of water collected during the descent of the bronze ball, as stated in his <i>Two New Sciences</i>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">credits <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a> (1969) "Epistemology Naturalized" <i>Ontological Relativity and Other Essays</i> New York: Columbia University Press, as well as <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, with the basic ideas of naturalism – <a href="/wiki/Naturalized_Epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalized Epistemology">Naturalized Epistemology</a>, but Godfrey-Smith diverges from Quine's position: according to Godfrey-Smith, "A naturalist can think that science can contribute to <i>answers</i> to philosophical questions, without thinking that philosophical questions can be replaced by science questions.".</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong." —<a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, noted by Alice Calaprice (ed. 2005) <i>The New Quotable Einstein</i> Princeton University Press and Hebrew University of Jerusalem, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-12074-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-12074-9">0-691-12074-9</a> p. 291. Calaprice denotes this not as an exact quotation, but as a paraphrase of a translation of A. Einstein's "Induction and Deduction". <i>Collected Papers of Albert Einstein</i> <b>7</b> Document 28. Volume 7 is <i>The Berlin Years: Writings, 1918–1921</i>. A. Einstein; M. Janssen, R. Schulmann, et al., eds.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Ludwik_Fleck" title="Ludwik Fleck">Fleck, Ludwik</a> (1979). Trenn, Thaddeus J.; Merton, Robert K (eds.). <i>Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-25325-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-25325-1"><bdi>978-0-226-25325-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genesis+and+Development+of+a+Scientific+Fact&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-226-25325-1&rft.aulast=Fleck&rft.aufirst=Ludwik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/> Claims that before a specific fact "existed", it had to be created as part of a social agreement within a community. <a href="/wiki/Steven_Shapin" title="Steven Shapin">Steven Shapin</a> (1980) "A view of scientific thought" <i>Science</i> ccvii (Mar 7, 1980) 1065–66 states "[To Fleck,] facts are invented, not discovered. Moreover, the appearance of scientific facts as discovered things is itself a social construction: a <i>made</i> thing. "</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-nasa2004-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nasa2004_151-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nasa2004_151-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2004/26mar_einstein">Evicting Einstein</a>, March 26, 2004, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. <i>"Both [relativity and quantum mechanics] are extremely successful. The Global Positioning System (GPS), for instance, wouldn't be possible without the theory of relativity. Computers, telecommunications, and the Internet, meanwhile, are spin-offs of quantum mechanics."</i></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<i>Pseudoscientific – pretending to be scientific, falsely represented as being scientific</i>", from the <i>Oxford American Dictionary</i>, published by the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a>; Hansson, Sven Ove (1996)."Defining Pseudoscience", Philosophia Naturalis, 33: 169–76, as cited in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pseudo-science/#NonSciPosSci">"Science and Pseudo-science"</a> (2008) in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The Stanford article states: "Many writers on pseudoscience have emphasized that pseudoscience is non-science posing as science. The foremost modern classic on the subject (Gardner 1957) bears the title <a href="/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science" title="Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science">Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</a>. According to Brian Baigrie (1988, 438), "[w]hat is objectionable about these beliefs is that they masquerade as genuinely scientific ones." These and many other authors assume that to be pseudoscientific, an activity or a teaching has to satisfy the following two criteria (Hansson 1996): (1) it is not scientific, and (2) its major proponents try to create the impression that it is scientific".
<ul><li>For example, Hewitt et al. <i>Conceptual Physical Science</i> Addison Wesley; 3 edition (July 18, 2003) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-321-05173-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-321-05173-4">0-321-05173-4</a>, Bennett et al. <i>The Cosmic Perspective</i> 3e Addison Wesley; 3 edition (July 25, 2003) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8053-8738-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8053-8738-2">0-8053-8738-2</a>; <i>See also</i>, e.g., Gauch HG Jr. <i>Scientific Method in Practice</i> (2003).</li>
<li>A 2006 <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> report on Science and engineering indicators quoted <a href="/wiki/Michael_Shermer" title="Michael Shermer">Michael Shermer</a>'s (1997) definition of pseudoscience: '"claims presented so that they appear [to be] scientific even though they lack supporting evidence and plausibility" (p. 33). In contrast, science is "a set of methods designed to describe and interpret observed and inferred phenomena, past or present, and aimed at building a testable body of knowledge open to rejection or confirmation" (p. 17)'.<cite class="citation book">Shermer M. (1997). <i>Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time</i>. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3090-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3090-3"><bdi>978-0-7167-3090-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+People+Believe+Weird+Things%3A+Pseudoscience%2C+Superstition%2C+and+Other+Confusions+of+Our+Time&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman+and+Company&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3090-3&rft.au=Shermer+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/> as cited by <cite class="citation book">National Science Board. <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>, Division of Science Resources Statistics (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130201220040/https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm">"Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding"</a>. <i>Science and engineering indicators 2006</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/c7/c7s2.htm">the original</a> on February 1, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+and+Technology%3A+Public+Attitudes+and+Understanding&rft.btitle=Science+and+engineering+indicators+2006&rft.date=2006&rft.au=National+Science+Board.+National+Science+Foundation%2C+Division+of+Science+Resources+Statistics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsf.gov%2Fstatistics%2Fseind06%2Fc7%2Fc7s2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li>"A pretended or spurious science; a collection of related beliefs about the world mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method or as having the status that scientific truths now have," from the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>, second edition 1989.</li></ul>
</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Women in science have included:
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a> (c. 350–415 CE), of the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trotula" title="Trotula">Trotula</a> of Salerno, a physician c. 1060 CE.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Herschel" title="Caroline Herschel">Caroline Herschel</a>, one of the first professional astronomers of the 18th and 19th centuries.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Ladd-Franklin" title="Christine Ladd-Franklin">Christine Ladd-Franklin</a>, a doctoral student of <a href="/wiki/C.S._Peirce" class="mw-redirect" title="C.S. Peirce">C.S. Peirce</a>, who published <a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a>'s proposition 5.101 in her dissertation, 40 years before Wittgenstein's publication of <i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Leavitt" class="mw-redirect" title="Henrietta Leavitt">Henrietta Leavitt</a>, a professional <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Computers" title="Harvard Computers">human computer and astronomer</a>, who first published the significant relationship between the luminosity of <a href="/wiki/Cepheid_variable" title="Cepheid variable">Cepheid variable</a> stars and their distance from Earth. This allowed Hubble to make the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Expanding_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Expanding universe">expanding universe</a>, which led to the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Bang theory">Big Bang theory</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emmy_Noether" title="Emmy Noether">Emmy Noether</a>, who proved the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">conservation of energy</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Constants_of_motion" class="mw-redirect" title="Constants of motion">constants of motion</a> in 1915.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>, who made discoveries relating to radioactivity along with her husband, and for whom <a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Curium</a> is named.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a>, who worked with X-ray diffraction.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jocelyn_Bell_Burnell" title="Jocelyn Bell Burnell">Jocelyn Bell Burnell</a>, at first not allowed to study science in her preparatory school, persisted, and was the first to observe and precisely analyse the radio pulsars, for which her supervisor was recognized by the 1974 Nobel prize in Physics. (Later awarded a Special Breakthrough prize in Physics in 2018, she donated the cash award in order that women, ethnic minority, and refugee students might become physics researchers.)</li>
<li>In 2018 <a href="/wiki/Donna_Strickland" title="Donna Strickland">Donna Strickland</a> became the third woman (the second being <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Goeppert-Mayer">Maria Goeppert-Mayer</a> in 1962) to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, for her work in chirped pulse amplification of lasers. <a href="/wiki/Frances_H._Arnold" class="mw-redirect" title="Frances H. Arnold">Frances H. Arnold</a> became the fifth woman to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the directed evolution of enzymes.</li></ul>
<i>See the project of <a href="/wiki/Jess_Wade" title="Jess Wade">Jess Wade</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/07/27/health/scientist-women-wikipedia-entries-trnd/index.html">Christina Zdanowicz (27 July 2018), </a></i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/07/27/health/scientist-women-wikipedia-entries-trnd/index.html">CNN<i> A physicist is writing one Wikipedia entry a day to recognize women in science</i></a><i> )</i></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Nina_Byers" title="Nina Byers">Nina Byers</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/">Contributions of 20th Century Women to Physics</a> which provides details on 83 female physicists of the 20th century. By 1976, more women were physicists, and the 83 who were detailed were joined by other women in noticeably larger numbers.</span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Harper, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/?term=science">"science"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 20,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=science&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2F%3Fterm%3Dscience&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-EOWilson1999a-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EOWilson1999a_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Wilson, E.O. (1999). "The natural sciences". <i>Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge</i> (Reprint ed.). New York, New York: Vintage. pp. 49–71. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76867-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76867-8"><bdi>978-0-679-76867-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+natural+sciences&rft.btitle=Consilience%3A+The+Unity+of+Knowledge&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=49-71&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-679-76867-8&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=E.O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Heilbron-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Heilbron_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heilbron_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heilbron_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"... modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions."— p.vii <cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/J._L._Heilbron" class="mw-redirect" title="J. L. Heilbron">Heilbron, J.L. (editor-in-chief)</a> (2003). "Preface". <i>The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. vii–X. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511229-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511229-0"><bdi>978-0-19-511229-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+History+of+Modern+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=vii-X&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511229-0&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=J.L.+%28editor-in-chief%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-webster-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-webster_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science">"science"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary</i>. <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a>, Inc<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 16,</span> 2011</span>. <q><b>3 a:</b> knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method <b>b:</b> such knowledge or such a system of knowledge concerned with the physical world and its phenomena.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=science&rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster+Online+Dictionary&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fscience&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lindberg1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg1_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg1_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg1_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"The historian ... requires a very broad definition of "science" – one that ... will help us to understand the modern scientific enterprise. We need to be broad and inclusive, rather than narrow and exclusive ... and we should expect that the farther back we go [in time] the broader we will need to be."  p.3—<cite class="citation book">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Science before the Greeks". <i>The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context</i> (Second ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–27. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+before+the+Greeks&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=1-27&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Grant2007a-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grant2007a_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grant2007a_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Grant, Edward (2007). "Ancient Egypt to Plato". <i>A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century</i> (First ed.). New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–26. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-052-1-68957-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-052-1-68957-1"><bdi>978-052-1-68957-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Egypt+to+Plato&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Natural+Philosophy%3A+From+the+Ancient+World+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=1-26&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-052-1-68957-1&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lindberg9-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg9_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg9_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg9_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The revival of learning in the West". <i>The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context</i> (Second ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 193–224. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+revival+of+learning+in+the+West&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=193-224&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lindberg8-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg8_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Islamic science". <i>The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context</i> (Second ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 163–92. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islamic+science&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=163-92&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lindberg10-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg10_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The recovery and assimilation of Greek and Islamic science". <i>The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context</i> (2nd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 225–53. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+recovery+and+assimilation+of+Greek+and+Islamic+science&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=225-53&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Principe2011-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Principe2011_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Principe, Lawrence M. (2011). "Introduction". <i>Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction</i> (First ed.). New York, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–3. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-199-56741-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-199-56741-6"><bdi>978-0-199-56741-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Scientific+Revolution%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=1-3&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-199-56741-6&rft.aulast=Principe&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lindberg1990-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg1990_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lindberg, David C. (1990). "Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch". In David C. Lindberg; Robert S. Westman (eds.). <i>Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution</i> (First ed.). Chicago, Illinois: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–26. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34262-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34262-9"><bdi>978-0-521-34262-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conceptions+of+the+Scientific+Revolution+from+Baker+to+Butterfield%3A+A+preliminary+sketch&rft.btitle=Reappraisals+of+the+Scientific+Revolution&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=1-26&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-521-34262-9&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lindberg14-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg14_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "The legacy of ancient and medieval science". <i>The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context</i> (2nd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 357–368. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+legacy+of+ancient+and+medieval+science&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=357-368&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Stanford_Encyclopedia-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_Encyclopedia_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Del Soldato, Eva (2016). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/"><i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a> (Fall 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Fall+2016&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Del+Soldato&rft.aufirst=Eva&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2016%2Fentries%2Fnatphil-ren%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Grant2007c-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grant2007c_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Grant, Edward (2007). "Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century". <i>A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century</i> (First ed.). New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 274–322. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-052-1-68957-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-052-1-68957-1"><bdi>978-052-1-68957-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Transformation+of+medieval+natural+philosophy+from+the+early+period+modern+period+to+the+end+of+the+nineteenth+century&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Natural+Philosophy%3A+From+the+Ancient+World+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=274-322&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-052-1-68957-1&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Cahan, David, ed. (2003). <i>From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science</i>. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08928-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08928-7"><bdi>978-0-226-08928-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Natural+Philosophy+to+the+Sciences%3A+Writing+the+History+of+Nineteenth-Century+Science&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-226-08928-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <i>Oxford English Dictionary</i> dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lightman_19th-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lightman_19th_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lightman_19th_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lightman, Bernard (2011). "13. Science and the Public". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). <i>Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 367. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226317830" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226317830"><bdi>978-0226317830</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=13.+Science+and+the+Public&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature+%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=367&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0226317830&rft.aulast=Lightman&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Harrison_(historian)" title="Peter Harrison (historian)">Harrison, Peter</a> (2015). <i>The Territories of Science and Religion</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 164–165. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226184517" title="Special:BookSources/9780226184517"><bdi>9780226184517</bdi></a>. <q>The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880, this expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Territories+of+Science+and+Religion&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=164-165&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780226184517&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Bishop1991-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bishop1991_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bishop1991_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Bishop, Alan (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54#v=onepage&q&f=false">"Environmental activities and mathematical culture"</a>. <i>Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics Education</i>. Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 20–59. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-792-31270-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-792-31270-3"><bdi>978-0-792-31270-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Environmental+activities+and+mathematical+culture&rft.btitle=Mathematical+Enculturation%3A+A+Cultural+Perspective+on+Mathematics+Education&rft.place=Norwell%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=20-59&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-792-31270-3&rft.aulast=Bishop&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9AgrBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA54%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Bunge_1998-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bunge_1998_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bunge_1998_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Bunge, Mario (1998). "The Scientific Approach". <i>Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory</i>. <b>1</b> (revised ed.). New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 3–50. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-765-80413-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-765-80413-6"><bdi>978-0-765-80413-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Scientific+Approach&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Science%3A+Volume+1%2C+From+Problem+to+Theory&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=3-50&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-765-80413-6&rft.aulast=Bunge&rft.aufirst=Mario&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Fetzer2013-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fetzer2013_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fetzer2013_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Fetzer, James H. (2013). "Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems". <i>Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines</i> (1st ed.). Newcastle, United Kingdom: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 271–308. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-443-81946-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-443-81946-6"><bdi>978-1-443-81946-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Computer+reliability+and+public+policy%3A+Limits+of+knowledge+of+computer-based+systems&rft.btitle=Computers+and+Cognition%3A+Why+Minds+are+not+Machines&rft.place=Newcastle%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=271-308&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-443-81946-6&rft.aulast=Fetzer&rft.aufirst=James+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Fischer, M.R.; Fabry, G (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4027809">"Thinking and acting scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education"</a>. <i>GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung</i>. <b>31</b> (2): Doc24. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.3205%2Fzma000916">10.3205/zma000916</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4027809">4027809</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24872859">24872859</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GMS+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Medizinische+Ausbildung&rft.atitle=Thinking+and+acting+scientifically%3A+Indispensable+basis+of+medical+education&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=Doc24&rft.date=2014&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4027809&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24872859&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3205%2Fzma000916&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=M.R.&rft.au=Fabry%2C+G&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4027809&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Abraham, Reem Rachel (2004). "Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking skills in undergraduate medical students". <i>Advances in Physiology Education</i>. <b>28</b> (3): 102–04. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1152%2Fadvan.00001.2004">10.1152/advan.00001.2004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15319191">15319191</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Physiology+Education&rft.atitle=Clinically+oriented+physiology+teaching%3A+strategy+for+developing+critical-thinking+skills+in+undergraduate+medical+students&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=102-04&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fadvan.00001.2004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15319191&rft.aulast=Abraham&rft.aufirst=Reem+Rachel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Sinclair, Marius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html">"On the Differences between the Engineering and Scientific Methods"</a>. <i>The International Journal of Engineering Education</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Engineering+Education&rft.atitle=On+the+Differences+between+the+Engineering+and+Scientific+Methods&rft.aulast=Sinclair&rft.aufirst=Marius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ijee.ie%2Fcontents%2Fc090593.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.engr.iupui.edu/departments/ent/about/index.php">"Engineering Technology :: Engineering Technology :: Purdue School of Engineering and Technology, IUPUI"</a>. <i>www.engr.iupui.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 7,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.engr.iupui.edu&rft.atitle=Engineering+Technology+%3A%3A+Engineering+Technology+%3A%3A+Purdue+School+of+Engineering+and+Technology%2C+IUPUI&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.engr.iupui.edu%2Fdepartments%2Fent%2Fabout%2Findex.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Grant1997-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grant1997_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Grant, Edward (January 1, 1997). "History of Science: When Did Modern Science Begin?". <i>The American Scholar</i>. <b>66</b> (1): 105–113. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/41212592">41212592</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Scholar&rft.atitle=History+of+Science%3A+When+Did+Modern+Science+Begin%3F&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=105-113&rft.date=1997-01-01&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41212592&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-pingree1992-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pingree1992_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/David_Pingree" title="David Pingree">Pingree, David</a> (December 1992). "Hellenophilia versus the History of Science". <i>Isis</i>. <b>83</b> (4): 554–63. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992Isis...83..554P">1992Isis...83..554P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1086%2F356288">10.1086/356288</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/234257">234257</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Hellenophilia+versus+the+History+of+Science&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=554-63&rft.date=1992-12&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F234257&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F356288&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992Isis...83..554P&rft.aulast=Pingree&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a> (司馬遷, d. 86 BCE) in his <i><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Records of the Grand Historian</a></i> (太史公書) covering some 2500 years of Chinese history, records <a href="/wiki/Sunshu_Ao" title="Sunshu Ao">Sunshu Ao</a> (孫叔敖, fl. c. 630–595 BCE – <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a>), the first known <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic engineer">hydraulic engineer</a> of China, cited in (<a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a> et al. (1971) <i><a href="/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" title="Science and Civilisation in China">Science and Civilisation in China</a></i> <b>4.3</b> p. 271) as having built a reservoir which has lasted to this day.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Rochberg, Francesca (2011). "Ch.1 Natural Knowledge in Ancient Mesopotamia". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). <i>Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226317830" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226317830"><bdi>978-0226317830</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.1+Natural+Knowledge+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature+%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0226317830&rft.aulast=Rochberg&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-McIntosh2005-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh2005_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh2005_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh2005_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh2005_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh2005_30-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMcIntosh2005" class="citation book">McIntosh, Jane R. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia#v=onepage&q=science&f=false"><i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives</i></a>. Santa Barbara, California, Denver, Colorado, and Oxford, England: ABC-CLIO. pp. 273–76. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-966-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-966-9"><bdi>978-1-57607-966-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Mesopotamia%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California%2C+Denver%2C+Colorado%2C+and+Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=273-76&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-57607-966-9&rft.aulast=McIntosh&rft.aufirst=Jane+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D9veK7E2JwkUC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq%3Dscience%2Bin%2Bancient%2BMesopotamia%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dscience%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFA._Aaboe1974" class="citation journal">A. Aaboe (May 2, 1974). "Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity". <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</a></i>. <b>276</b> (1257): 21–42. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974RSPTA.276...21A">1974RSPTA.276...21A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.1974.0007">10.1098/rsta.1974.0007</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/74272">74272</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Scientific+Astronomy+in+Antiquity&rft.volume=276&rft.issue=1257&rft.pages=21-42&rft.date=1974-05-02&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F74272&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsta.1974.0007&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1974RSPTA.276...21A&rft.au=A.+Aaboe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">R D. Biggs (2005). "Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia". <i>Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies</i>. <b>19</b> (1): 7–18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Assyrian+Academic+Studies&rft.atitle=Medicine%2C+Surgery%2C+and+Public+Health+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-18&rft.date=2005&rft.au=R+D.+Biggs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lehoux-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lehoux_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lehoux, Daryn (2011). "2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). <i>Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226317830" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226317830"><bdi>978-0226317830</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2.+Natural+Knowledge+in+the+Classical+World&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature+%3A+From+Omens+to+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0226317830&rft.aulast=Lehoux&rft.aufirst=Daryn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the quotation in <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> (8th century BCE) <a href="/wiki/Nature#cite_note-2" title="Nature"><i>Odyssey</i> 10.302–03</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Progress or Return" in <i>An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss</i> (Expanded version of <i>Political Philosophy: Six Essays by Leo Strauss</i>, 1975.) Ed. Hilail Gilden. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1989.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Cropsey; Strauss (eds.). <i>History of Political Philosophy</i> (3rd ed.). p. 209.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Political+Philosophy&rft.pages=209&rft.edition=3rd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-O'Grady-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-O'Grady_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFO'Grady2016" class="citation book">O'Grady, Patricia F. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=ZTUlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA245&dq=Thales+of+Miletus+first+scientist#v=onepage&q=Thales%20of%20Miletus%20first%20scientist&f=false"><i>Thales of Miletus: The Beginnings of Western Science and Philosophy</i></a>. New York City, New York and London, England: Routledge. p. 245. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0533-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-0533-1"><bdi>978-0-7546-0533-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thales+of+Miletus%3A+The+Beginnings+of+Western+Science+and+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+New+York+and+London%2C+England&rft.pages=245&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-0533-1&rft.aulast=O%27Grady&rft.aufirst=Patricia+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DZTUlDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA245%26dq%3DThales%2Bof%2BMiletus%2Bfirst%2Bscientist%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DThales%2520of%2520Miletus%2520first%2520scientist%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Burkert1972-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burkert1972_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burkert1972_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBurkert1972" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Burkert" title="Walter Burkert">Burkert, Walter</a> (June 1, 1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Pythagoreanism#v=onepage&q=Pythagoreanism&f=false"><i>Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism</i></a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-53918-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-53918-1"><bdi>978-0-674-53918-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/https://books.google.com/books?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Pythagoreanism&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX4Y3W9bfXAhXBeSYKHfBxCG4Q6AEIMTAC#v=onepage&q=Pythagoreanism&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on January 29, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lore+and+Science+in+Ancient+Pythagoreanism&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1972-06-01&rft.isbn=978-0-674-53918-1&rft.aulast=Burkert&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D0qqp4Vk1zG0C%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq%3DPythagoreanism%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DPythagoreanism%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPullman1998" class="citation book">Pullman, Bernard (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=IQs5hur-BpgC&pg=PA56&dq=Leucippus+Democritus+atom#v=onepage&q=Leucippus%20Democritus%20atom&f=false"><i>The Atom in the History of Human Thought</i></a>. pp. 31–33. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ahht.book.....P">1998ahht.book.....P</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515040-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-515040-7"><bdi>978-0-19-515040-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atom+in+the+History+of+Human+Thought&rft.pages=31-33&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998ahht.book.....P&rft.isbn=978-0-19-515040-7&rft.aulast=Pullman&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DIQs5hur-BpgC%26pg%3DPA56%26dq%3DLeucippus%2BDemocritus%2Batom%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DLeucippus%2520Democritus%2520atom%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCohenLefebvre2017" class="citation book">Cohen, Henri; Lefebvre, Claire, eds. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=zIrCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA427&dq=Leucippus+Democritus+atom#v=onepage&q=Leucippus%20Democritus%20atom&f=false"><i>Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science</i></a> (Second ed.). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier. p. 427. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-101107-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-101107-2"><bdi>978-0-08-101107-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Categorization+in+Cognitive+Science&rft.place=Amsterdam%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pages=427&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-08-101107-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DzIrCDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA427%26dq%3DLeucippus%2BDemocritus%2Batom%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DLeucippus%2520Democritus%2520atom%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMargotta1968" class="citation book">Margotta, Roberto (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/The_story_of_medicine.html?id=">vFZrAAAAMAAJ <i>The Story of Medicine</i></a><span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment"> Check <code class="cs1-code">|url=</code> value (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span>. New York City, New York: <a href="/wiki/Golden_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden Press">Golden Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Medicine&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Golden+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Margotta&rft.aufirst=Roberto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FThe_story_of_medicine.html%3Fid%3D+vFZrAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Touwaide2005-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Touwaide2005_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTouwaide2005" class="citation book">Touwaide, Alain (2005). Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven; Wallis, Faith (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA224&dq=Hippocrates+medical+science#v=onepage&q=Hippocrates%20medical%20science&f=false"><i>Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia</i></a>. New York City, New York and London, England: Routledge. p. 224. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96930-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96930-7"><bdi>978-0-415-96930-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+New+York+and+London%2C+England&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-415-96930-7&rft.aulast=Touwaide&rft.aufirst=Alain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D77y2AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA224%26dq%3DHippocrates%2Bmedical%2Bscience%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DHippocrates%2520medical%2520science%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLeffLeff1956" class="citation book">Leff, Samuel; Leff, Vera (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books/about/From_witchcraft_to_world_health.html?id=HjNrAAAAMAAJ"><i>From Witchcraft to World Health</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, England: <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Witchcraft+to+World+Health&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Leff&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft.au=Leff%2C+Vera&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FFrom_witchcraft_to_world_health.html%3Fid%3DHjNrAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Mitchell, Jacqueline S. (February 18, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030303204503/http://www.pbs.org/saf/1307/features/knows.htm">"The Origins of Science"</a>. <i>Scientific American Frontiers</i>. PBS. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/saf/1307/features/knows.htm">the original</a> on March 3, 2003<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 3,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American+Frontiers&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+Science&rft.date=2003-02-18&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Jacqueline+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fsaf%2F1307%2Ffeatures%2Fknows.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17">"Plato, Apology"</a>. p. 17. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17">Archived</a> from the original on January 29, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plato%2C+Apology&rft.pages=17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.01.0170%253Atext%253DApol.%253Apage%253D17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27">"Plato, Apology"</a>. p. 27. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27">Archived</a> from the original on January 29, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plato%2C+Apology&rft.pages=27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.01.0170%253Atext%253DApol.%253Apage%253D27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plat.+Apol.+30&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170">"Plato, Apology, section 30"</a>. <i>Perseus Digital Library</i>. Tufts University. 1966. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170127102440/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plat.+Apol.+30&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170">Archived</a> from the original on January 27, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Perseus+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=Plato%2C+Apology%2C+section+30&rft.date=1966&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPlat.%2BApol.%2B30%26fromdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.01.0170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Aristotle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1139b"><i>Nicomachean Ethics</i></a> (H. Rackham ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120317140402/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=">Archived</a> from the original on March 17, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 22,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicomachean+Ethics&rft.edition=H.+Rackham&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.01.0054%253Abekker%2520page%253D1139b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/> 1139b</span>
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<li id="cite_note-McClellan2015-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McClellan2015_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McClellan2015_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMcClellan_IIIDorn2015" class="citation book">McClellan III, James E.; Dorn, Harold (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=ah1ECwAAQBAJ&pg=PA99&dq=Aristarchus+heliocentrism#v=onepage&q=Aristarchus%20heliocentrism&f=false"><i>Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction</i></a>. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 99–100. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1776-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-1776-9"><bdi>978-1-4214-1776-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Technology+in+World+History%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+Maryland&rft.pages=99-100&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4214-1776-9&rft.aulast=McClellan+III&rft.aufirst=James+E.&rft.au=Dorn%2C+Harold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3Dah1ECwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA99%26dq%3DAristarchus%2Bheliocentrism%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DAristarchus%2520heliocentrism%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Edwards1979-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Edwards1979_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Edwards1979_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Edwards1979_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards1979" class="citation book">Edwards, C.H. Jr. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=ilrlBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA75&dq=Archimedes+calculus#v=onepage&q=Archimedes%20calculus&f=false"><i>The Historical Development of the Calculus</i></a> (First ed.). New York City, New York: Springer-Verlag. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-94313-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-94313-8"><bdi>978-0-387-94313-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Development+of+the+Calculus&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+New+York&rft.pages=75&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-387-94313-8&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=C.H.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DilrlBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA75%26dq%3DArchimedes%2Bcalculus%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DArchimedes%2520calculus%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Lawson2004-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lawson2004_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lawson2004_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLawson2004" class="citation book">Lawson, Russell M. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=1AY1ALzh9V0C&pg=PA190&dq=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia#v=onepage&q=Pliny%20the%20Elder%20encyclopedia&f=false"><i>Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia</i></a>. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 190–91. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-539-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-539-1"><bdi>978-1-85109-539-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+in+the+Ancient+World%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pages=190-91&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-539-1&rft.aulast=Lawson&rft.aufirst=Russell+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D1AY1ALzh9V0C%26pg%3DPA190%26dq%3DPliny%2Bthe%2BElder%2Bencyclopedia%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DPliny%2520the%2520Elder%2520encyclopedia%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2004" class="citation book">Murphy, Trevor Morgan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=6NC_T_tG9lQC&dq=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia"><i>Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia</i></a>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199262885" title="Special:BookSources/9780199262885"><bdi>9780199262885</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny+the+Elder%27s+Natural+History%3A+The+Empire+in+the+Encyclopedia&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780199262885&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Trevor+Morgan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D6NC_T_tG9lQC%26dq%3DPliny%2Bthe%2BElder%2Bencyclopedia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDoode2010" class="citation book">Doode, Aude (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=YoEhAwAAQBAJ&dq=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia"><i>Pliny's Encyclopedia: The Reception of the Natural History</i></a>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139484534" title="Special:BookSources/9781139484534"><bdi>9781139484534</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pliny%27s+Encyclopedia%3A+The+Reception+of+the+Natural+History&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781139484534&rft.aulast=Doode&rft.aufirst=Aude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DYoEhAwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DPliny%2Bthe%2BElder%2Bencyclopedia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2004" class="citation">Smith, A. Mark (June 2004), "What is the History of Medieval Optics Really About?", <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i>, <b>148</b> (2): 180–94, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1558283">1558283</a>, <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15338543">15338543</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=What+is+the+History+of+Medieval+Optics+Really+About%3F&rft.volume=148&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=180-94&rft.date=2004-06&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1558283&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15338543&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Lindberg7-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg7_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lindberg7_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Roman and early medieval science". <i>The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context</i> (Second ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 132–162. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-48205-7"><bdi>978-0-226-48205-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Roman+and+early+medieval+science&rft.btitle=The+beginnings+of+Western+science%3A+the+European+Scientific+tradition+in+philosophical%2C+religious%2C+and+institutional+context&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=132-162&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-48205-7&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Wildberg, Christian (May 1, 2018). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/"><i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2018-05-01&rft.aulast=Wildberg&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2016%2Fentries%2Fphiloponus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></i> II, 3, and <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> V, 2</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Grant1996-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grant1996_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Grant, Edward (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YyvmEyX6rZgC"><i>The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional and Intellectual Contexts</i></a>. Cambridge Studies in the History of Science. Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–17. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521567626" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521567626"><bdi>978-0521567626</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Foundations+of+Modern+Science+in+the+Middle+Ages%3A+Their+Religious%2C+Institutional+and+Intellectual+Contexts&rft.series=Cambridge+Studies+in+the+History+of+Science&rft.pages=7-17&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0521567626&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYyvmEyX6rZgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Grant2007b-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grant2007b_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grant2007b_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Grant, Edward (2007). "Islam and the eastward shift of Aristotelian natural philosophy". <i>A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 62–67. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68957-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68957-1"><bdi>978-0-521-68957-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islam+and+the+eastward+shift+of+Aristotelian+natural+philosophy&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Natural+Philosophy%3A+From+the+Ancient+World+to+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pages=62-67&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-68957-1&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><i>The Cambridge history of Iran</i>. Fisher, W.B. (William Bayne). Cambridge: University Press. 1968–1991. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521200936" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521200936"><bdi>978-0521200936</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/745412">745412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+Iran&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1968%2F1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F745412&rft.isbn=978-0521200936&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah">"Bayt al-Hikmah"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161104043313/https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah">Archived</a> from the original on November 4, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 3,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bayt+al-Hikmah&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FBayt-al-Hikmah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Klein-Frank, F. <i>Al-Kindi</i>. In Leaman, O & Nasr, H (2001). <i>History of Islamic Philosophy</i>. London: Routledge. p. 165. Felix Klein-Frank (2001) <i>Al-Kindi</i>, pp. 166–67. In Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr. <i>History of Islamic Philosophy</i>. London: Routledge.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">"Science in Islam". <i>Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages</i>. 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+in+Islam&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.date=2009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-toomer1964Review-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-toomer1964Review_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Toomer, G.J. (1964). "Reviewed work: Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik, Matthias Schramm". <i>Isis</i>. <b>55</b> (4): 463–65. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1086%2F349914">10.1086/349914</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/228328">228328</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Reviewed+work%3A+Ibn+al-Haythams+Weg+zur+Physik%2C+Matthias+Schramm&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=463-65&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F349914&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F228328&rft.aulast=Toomer&rft.aufirst=G.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/> See p. 464: "Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method.", p. 465: "Schramm has demonstrated .. beyond any dispute that Ibn al-Haytham is a major figure in the Islamic scientific tradition, particularly in the creation of experimental techniques." p. 465: "only when the influence of ibn al-Haytam and others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously investigated can Schramm's claim that ibn al-Haytam was the true founder of modern physics be evaluated."</span>
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<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith 2001</a><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>Book I, [6.54]. p. 372</span></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Selin, H (2006). <i>Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures</i>. pp. 155–156. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ehst.book.....S">2008ehst.book.....S</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2"><bdi>978-1-4020-4559-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+History+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine+in+Non-Western+Cultures&rft.pages=155-156&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008ehst.book.....S&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2&rft.aulast=Selin&rft.aufirst=H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Numbers, Ronald (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=">9780674057418 <i>Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion</i></a><span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment"> Check <code class="cs1-code">|url=</code> value (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_url" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span>. Harvard University Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03327-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03327-6"><bdi>978-0-674-03327-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo+Goes+to+Jail+and+Other+Myths+about+Science+and+Religion&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03327-6&rft.aulast=Numbers&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hup.harvard.edu%2Fcatalog.php%3Fisbn%3D+9780674057418&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Shwayder-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shwayder_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Shwayder, Maya (April 7, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2011/04/debunking-a-myth/">"Debunking a myth"</a>. <i>The Harvard Gazette</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 11,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Harvard+Gazette&rft.atitle=Debunking+a+myth&rft.date=2011-04-07&rft.aulast=Shwayder&rft.aufirst=Maya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.harvard.edu%2Fgazette%2Fstory%2F2011%2F04%2Fdebunking-a-myth%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith2001">Smith 2001</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">McGinnis, Jon (2010). <i>The Canon of Medicine</i>. Oxford University. p. 227.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Canon+of+Medicine&rft.pages=227&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=McGinnis&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lindberg, David (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dPUBAkIm2lUC&pg=PA162"><i>The Beginnings of Western Science</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 162. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226482040" title="Special:BookSources/9780226482040"><bdi>9780226482040</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Beginnings+of+Western+Science&rft.pages=162&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780226482040&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdPUBAkIm2lUC%26pg%3DPA162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus">"St. Albertus Magnus | German theologian, scientist, and philosopher"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171028045424/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus">Archived</a> from the original on October 28, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 27,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=St.+Albertus+Magnus+%26%23124%3B+German+theologian%2C+scientist%2C+and+philosopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FSaint-Albertus-Magnus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Smith, A. Mark (2001). "Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume One". <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>91</b> (4): i–337. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/3657358">3657358</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Alhacen%27s+Theory+of+Visual+Perception%3A+A+Critical+Edition%2C+with+English+Translation+and+Commentary%2C+of+the+First+Three+Books+of+Alhacen%27s+%22De+aspectibus%22%2C+the+Medieval+Latin+Version+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+%22Kit%C4%81b+al-Man%C4%81%E1%BA%93ir%22%3A+Volume+One&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=i-337&rft.date=2001&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3657358&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Smith1981-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith1981_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith1981_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Smith, A. Mark (1981). "Getting the Big Picture in Perspectivist Optics". <i>Isis</i>. <b>72</b> (4): 568–89. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1086%2F352843">10.1086/352843</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/231249">231249</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Getting+the+Big+Picture+in+Perspectivist+Optics&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=568-89&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F352843&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F231249&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Goldstein, Bernard R (2016). "Copernicus and the Origin of his Heliocentric System". <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i>. <b>33</b> (3): 219–35. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1177%2F002182860203300301">10.1177/002182860203300301</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+History+of+Astronomy&rft.atitle=Copernicus+and+the+Origin+of+his+Heliocentric+System&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=219-35&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002182860203300301&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Bernard+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Cohen-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cohen_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2010" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Floris_Cohen" title="Floris Cohen">Cohen, H. Floris</a> (2010). <i>How modern science came into the world. Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough</i> (Second ed.). Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789089642394" title="Special:BookSources/9789089642394"><bdi>9789089642394</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+modern+science+came+into+the+world.+Four+civilizations%2C+one+17th-century+breakthrough&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9789089642394&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=H.+Floris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">"Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science". <i>American Heritage of Invention and Technology</i>. <b>24</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Heritage+of+Invention+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Galileo+and+the+Birth+of+Modern+Science&rft.volume=24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Pope_Urban_VIII-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pope_Urban_VIII_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">van Helden, Al (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://galileo.rice.edu/gal/urban.html">"Pope Urban VIII"</a>. <i>The Galileo Project</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161111033150/http://galileo.rice.edu/gal/urban.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 11, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 3,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Galileo+Project&rft.atitle=Pope+Urban+VIII&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=van+Helden&rft.aufirst=Al&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgalileo.rice.edu%2Fgal%2Furban.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Leibniz.html">MacTutor Archive, Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Freudenthal, Gideon; McLaughlin, Peter (May 20, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmbZIybuRoC&pg=PA162"><i>The Social and Economic Roots of the Scientific Revolution: Texts by Boris Hessen and Henryk Grossmann</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781402096044" title="Special:BookSources/9781402096044"><bdi>9781402096044</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Social+and+Economic+Roots+of+the+Scientific+Revolution%3A+Texts+by+Boris+Hessen+and+Henryk+Grossmann&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2009-05-20&rft.isbn=9781402096044&rft.aulast=Freudenthal&rft.aufirst=Gideon&rft.au=McLaughlin%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPgmbZIybuRoC%26pg%3DPA162&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas G. Bergin (ed.), <i>Encyclopedia of the Renaissance</i> (Oxford and New York: New Market Books, 1987).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see Hall (1954), iii; Mason (1956), 223.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassels, Alan. Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World. p. 2.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Whewell_scientist-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Whewell_scientist_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRoss,_Sydney1962" class="citation journal">Ross, Sydney (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.informaworld.com/index/739364907.pdf">"Scientist: The story of a word"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Annals_of_Science" title="Annals of Science">Annals of Science</a></i>. <b>18</b> (2): 65–85. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1080%2F00033796200202722">10.1080/00033796200202722</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 8,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=Scientist%3A+The+story+of+a+word&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=65-85&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033796200202722&rft.au=Ross%2C+Sydney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.informaworld.com%2Findex%2F739364907.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/> To be exact, the person who coined the term <i>scientist</i> was referred to in Whewell 1834 only as "some ingenious gentleman." Ross added a comment that this "some ingenious gentleman" was Whewell himself, without giving the reason for the identification. Ross 1962, p. 72.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">von Bertalanffy, Ludwig (1972). "The History and Status of General Systems Theory". <i>The Academy of Management Journal</i>. <b>15</b> (4): 407–26. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.2307%2F255139">10.2307/255139</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/255139">255139</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Academy+of+Management+Journal&rft.atitle=The+History+and+Status+of+General+Systems+Theory&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=407-26&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F255139&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F255139&rft.aulast=von+Bertalanffy&rft.aufirst=Ludwig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-MujumdarandTejinder2016-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MujumdarandTejinder2016_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Mujumdar, Anshu Gupta; Singh, Tejinder (2016). "Cognitive science and the connection between physics and mathematics". In Anthony Aguirre; Brendan Foster (eds.). <i>Trick or Truth?: The Mysterious Connection Between Physics and Mathematics</i>. The Frontiers Collection (1st ed.). Switzerland: SpringerNature. pp. 201–218. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-27494-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-27494-2"><bdi>978-3-319-27494-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cognitive+science+and+the+connection+between+physics+and+mathematics&rft.btitle=Trick+or+Truth%3F%3A+The+Mysterious+Connection+Between+Physics+and+Mathematics&rft.place=Switzerland&rft.series=The+Frontiers+Collection&rft.pages=201-218&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=SpringerNature&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-319-27494-2&rft.aulast=Mujumdar&rft.aufirst=Anshu+Gupta&rft.au=Singh%2C+Tejinder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Richard Dawkins (May 10, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120119113522/http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91">"To Live at All Is Miracle Enough"</a>. RichardDawkins.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91">the original</a> on January 19, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 5,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=To+Live+at+All+Is+Miracle+Enough&rft.pub=RichardDawkins.net&rft.date=2006-05-10&rft.au=Richard+Dawkins&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fricharddawkins.net%2Farticles%2F91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Stanovich2007-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stanovich2007_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanovich2007_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanovich2007_105-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanovich2007_105-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanovich2007_105-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Stanovich, Keith E. (2007). <i>How to Think Straight About Psychology</i>. Boston: Pearson Education. pp. 106–147. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-68590-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-68590-5"><bdi>978-0-205-68590-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+Think+Straight+About+Psychology&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=106-147&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-205-68590-5&rft.aulast=Stanovich&rft.aufirst=Keith+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-difrancia1976-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-difrancia1976_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-difrancia1976_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"The amazing point is that for the first time since the discovery of mathematics, a method has been introduced, the results of which have an intersubjective value!" <i>(Author's punctuation)</i>}} —<cite class="citation book">di Francia, Giuliano Toraldo (1976). "The method of physics". <i>The Investigation of the Physical World</i>. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–52. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29925-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29925-1"><bdi>978-0-521-29925-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+method+of+physics&rft.btitle=The+Investigation+of+the+Physical+World&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=1-52&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29925-1&rft.aulast=di+Francia&rft.aufirst=Giuliano+Toraldo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-EOWilson-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EOWilson_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWilson1999" class="citation book">Wilson, Edward (1999). <i>Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge</i>. New York: Vintage. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76867-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76867-8"><bdi>978-0-679-76867-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consilience%3A+The+Unity+of+Knowledge&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-679-76867-8&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-fara2009-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fara2009_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Fara, Patricia (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/408">"Decisions"</a>. <i>Science: A Four Thousand Year History</i>. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/408">408</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922689-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922689-4"><bdi>978-0-19-922689-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Decisions&rft.btitle=Science%3A+A+Four+Thousand+Year+History&rft.place=Oxford%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pages=408&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-922689-4&rft.aulast=Fara&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsciencefourthous00fara%2Fpage%2F408&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Nola2005k-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nola2005k_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Nola, Robert; Irzik, Gürol (2005k). "naive inductivism as a methodology in science". <i>Philosophy, science, education and culture</i>. Science & technology education library. <b>28</b>. Springer. pp. 207–230. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3769-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3769-6"><bdi>978-1-4020-3769-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=naive+inductivism+as+a+methodology+in+science&rft.btitle=Philosophy%2C+science%2C+education+and+culture&rft.series=Science+%26+technology+education+library&rft.pages=207-230&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-3769-6&rft.aulast=Nola&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Irzik%2C+G%C3%BCrol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Nola2005j-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nola2005j_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Nola, Robert; Irzik, Gürol (2005j). "The aims of science and critical inquiry". <i>Philosophy, science, education and culture</i>. Science & technology education library. <b>28</b>. Springer. pp. 207–230. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3769-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3769-6"><bdi>978-1-4020-3769-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+aims+of+science+and+critical+inquiry&rft.btitle=Philosophy%2C+science%2C+education+and+culture&rft.series=Science+%26+technology+education+library&rft.pages=207-230&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-3769-6&rft.aulast=Nola&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Irzik%2C+G%C3%BCrol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">van Gelder, Tim (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080409054240/http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf">"<span class="cs1-kern-left">"</span>Heads I win, tails you lose": A Foray Into the Psychology of Philosophy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. University of Melbourne. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on April 9, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 28,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Heads+I+win%2C+tails+you+lose%22%3A+A+Foray+Into+the+Psychology+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=University+of+Melbourne&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=van+Gelder&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au%2Ftgelder%2Fpapers%2FHeadsIWin.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Pease, Craig (September 6, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100619154617/http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm">"Chapter 23. Deliberate bias: Conflict creates bad science"</a>. <i>Science for Business, Law and Journalism</i>. Vermont Law School. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm">the original</a> on June 19, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+for+Business%2C+Law+and+Journalism&rft.atitle=Chapter+23.+Deliberate+bias%3A+Conflict+creates+bad+science&rft.date=2006-09-06&rft.aulast=Pease&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaw-and-science.net%2FScience4BLJ%2FScientific_Method%2FDeliberate.bias%2FText.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Shatz, David (2004). <i>Peer Review: A Critical Inquiry</i>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-1434-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-1434-8"><bdi>978-0-7425-1434-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/54989960">54989960</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peer+Review%3A+A+Critical+Inquiry&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F54989960&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-1434-8&rft.aulast=Shatz&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Krimsky, Sheldon (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scienceinprivate0000krim"><i>Science in the Private Interest: Has the Lure of Profits Corrupted the Virtue of Biomedical Research</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-1479-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-1479-9"><bdi>978-0-7425-1479-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/185926306">185926306</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+in+the+Private+Interest%3A+Has+the+Lure+of+Profits+Corrupted+the+Virtue+of+Biomedical+Research&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F185926306&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-1479-9&rft.aulast=Krimsky&rft.aufirst=Sheldon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscienceinprivate0000krim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Bulger, Ruth Ellen; Heitman, Elizabeth; Reiser, Stanley Joel (2002). <i>The Ethical Dimensions of the Biological and Health Sciences</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00886-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00886-0"><bdi>978-0-521-00886-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/47791316">47791316</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ethical+Dimensions+of+the+Biological+and+Health+Sciences&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47791316&rft.isbn=978-0-521-00886-0&rft.aulast=Bulger&rft.aufirst=Ruth+Ellen&rft.au=Heitman%2C+Elizabeth&rft.au=Reiser%2C+Stanley+Joel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-backer-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-backer_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Backer, Patricia Ryaby (October 29, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080408082917/http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/scientific_method.htm">"What is the scientific method?"</a>. San Jose State University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/scientific_method.htm">the original</a> on April 8, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 28,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+the+scientific+method%3F&rft.pub=San+Jose+State+University&rft.date=2004-10-29&rft.aulast=Backer&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Ryaby&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.engr.sjsu.edu%2Fpabacker%2Fscientific_method.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ziman1978c-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ziman1978c_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ziman1978c_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Ziman, John (1978c). "Common observation". <i>Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 42–76. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22087-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22087-3"><bdi>978-0-521-22087-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Common+observation&rft.btitle=Reliable+knowledge%3A+An+exploration+of+the+grounds+for+belief+in+science&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=42-76&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22087-3&rft.aulast=Ziman&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ziman1978e-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ziman1978e_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Ziman, John (1978c). "The stuff of reality". <i>Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 95–123. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22087-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22087-3"><bdi>978-0-521-22087-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+stuff+of+reality&rft.btitle=Reliable+knowledge%3A+An+exploration+of+the+grounds+for+belief+in+science&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=95-123&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22087-3&rft.aulast=Ziman&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-popper2002e-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-popper2002e_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Popper, Karl R. (2002e) [1959]. "The problem of the empirical basis". <i>The Logic of Scientific Discovery</i>. New York, New York: Routledge Classics. pp. 3–26. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27844-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27844-7"><bdi>978-0-415-27844-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/59377149">59377149</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+problem+of+the+empirical+basis&rft.btitle=The+Logic+of+Scientific+Discovery&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=3-26&rft.pub=Routledge+Classics&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F59377149&rft.isbn=978-0-415-27844-7&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.siam.org/students/resources/report.php">"SIAM: Graduate Education for Computational Science and Engineering"</a>. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161228083134/https://www.siam.org/students/resources/report.php">Archived</a> from the original on December 28, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 4,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SIAM%3A+Graduate+Education+for+Computational+Science+and+Engineering&rft.pub=Society+for+Industrial+and+Applied+Mathematics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.siam.org%2Fstudents%2Fresources%2Freport.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003c-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003c_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003c_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003c). "Induction and confirmation". <i>Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science</i> (1st ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago. pp. 39–56. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30062-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30062-7"><bdi>978-0-226-30062-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Induction+and+confirmation&rft.btitle=Theory+and+Reality%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=39-56&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-226-30062-7&rft.aulast=Godfrey-Smith&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003o-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003o_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003o). "Empiricism, naturalism, and scientific realism?". <i>Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science</i> (1st ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago. pp. 219–232. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30062-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30062-7"><bdi>978-0-226-30062-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Empiricism%2C+naturalism%2C+and+scientific+realism%3F&rft.btitle=Theory+and+Reality%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=219-232&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-226-30062-7&rft.aulast=Godfrey-Smith&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003b-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003b_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003b). "Logic plus empiricism". <i>Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science</i> (1st ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago. pp. 19–38. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30062-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30062-7"><bdi>978-0-226-30062-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Logic+plus+empiricism&rft.btitle=Theory+and+Reality%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=19-38&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-226-30062-7&rft.aulast=Godfrey-Smith&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003d-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003d_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003d_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003d). "Popper: Conjecture and refutation". <i>Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science</i> (1st ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago. pp. 57–74. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30062-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30062-7"><bdi>978-0-226-30062-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Popper%3A+Conjecture+and+refutation&rft.btitle=Theory+and+Reality%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=57-74&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-226-30062-7&rft.aulast=Godfrey-Smith&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003g-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003g_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003g). "Lakatos, Laudan, Feyerabend, and frameworks". <i>Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science</i> (1st ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago. pp. 102–121. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30062-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30062-7"><bdi>978-0-226-30062-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lakatos%2C+Laudan%2C+Feyerabend%2C+and+frameworks&rft.btitle=Theory+and+Reality%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=102-121&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-226-30062-7&rft.aulast=Godfrey-Smith&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Popper, Karl (1972). <i>Objective Knowledge</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Objective+Knowledge&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wiki.lesswrong.com/wiki/Shut_up_and_multiply">"Shut up and multiply"</a>. <i>LessWrong Wiki</i>. September 13, 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161019082101/https://wiki.lesswrong.com/wiki/Shut_up_and_multiply">Archived</a> from the original on October 19, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 4,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LessWrong+Wiki&rft.atitle=Shut+up+and+multiply&rft.date=2015-09-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwiki.lesswrong.com%2Fwiki%2FShut_up_and_multiply&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Newton-Smith, W.H. (1994). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rationalityofsci0000newt"><i>The Rationality of Science</i></a></span>. London: Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rationalityofsci0000newt/page/30">30</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7100-0913-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7100-0913-5"><bdi>978-0-7100-0913-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rationality+of+Science&rft.place=London&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-7100-0913-5&rft.au=Newton-Smith%2C+W.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frationalityofsci0000newt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Bird, Alexander (2013). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/thomas-kuhn/">"Thomas Kuhn"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 26,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Thomas+Kuhn&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Ffall2013%2Fentries%2Fthomas-kuhn%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-KuhnP206-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KuhnP206_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T.S. Kuhn, <i>The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</i>, 2nd. ed., Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1970, p. 206. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-45804-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-45804-0">0-226-45804-0</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Godfrey-Smith2003j-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Godfrey-Smith2003j_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003j). "Naturalistic philosophy in theory and practice". <i>Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science</i> (1st ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago. pp. 149–162. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30062-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-30062-7"><bdi>978-0-226-30062-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Naturalistic+philosophy+in+theory+and+practice&rft.btitle=Theory+and+Reality%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+of+Science&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=149-162&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-226-30062-7&rft.aulast=Godfrey-Smith&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBrugger,_E._Christian2004" class="citation journal">Brugger, E. Christian (2004). "Casebeer, William D. Natural Ethical Facts: Evolution, Connectionism, and Moral Cognition". <i>The Review of Metaphysics</i>. <b>58</b> (2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Metaphysics&rft.atitle=Casebeer%2C+William+D.+Natural+Ethical+Facts%3A+Evolution%2C+Connectionism%2C+and+Moral+Cognition&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Brugger%2C+E.+Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Winther, Rasmus Grønfeldt (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/structure-scientific-theories/">"The Structure of Scientific Theories"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 4,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=The+Structure+of+Scientific+Theories&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Winther&rft.aufirst=Rasmus+Gr%C3%B8nfeldt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fstructure-scientific-theories%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Popper1996-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Popper1996_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Popper, Karl Raimund (1996). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/insearchofbetter00karl"><i>In Search of a Better World: Lectures and Essays From Thirty Years</i></a></span>. New York, New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-13548-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-13548-1"><bdi>978-0-415-13548-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+a+Better+World%3A+Lectures+and+Essays+From+Thirty+Years&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-415-13548-1&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl+Raimund&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finsearchofbetter00karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Dawkins, Richard; Coyne, Jerry (September 2, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2005/sep/01/schools.research">"One side can be wrong"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131226232200/http://www.theguardian.com/science/2005/sep/01/schools.research">Archived</a> from the original on December 26, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=One+side+can+be+wrong&rft.date=2005-09-02&rft.aulast=Dawkins&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Coyne%2C+Jerry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2F2005%2Fsep%2F01%2Fschools.research&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce (1877), "The Fixation of Belief", Popular Science Monthly, v. 12, pp. 1–15, see §IV on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKMVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA6">pp. 6–7</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160415043128/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKMVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA6">Archived</a> April 15, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Reprinted <i>Collected Papers</i> v. 5, paragraphs 358–87 (see 374–76), <i>Writings</i> v. 3, pp. 242–57 (see 247–48), <i>Essential Peirce</i> v. 1, pp. 109–23 (see 114–15), and elsewhere.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce (1905), "Issues of Pragmaticism", <i>The Monist</i>, v. XV, n. 4, pp. 481–99, see "Character V" on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/monistquart15hegeuoft#page/491/mode/1up">p. 491</a>. Reprinted in <i>Collected Papers</i> v. 5, paragraphs 438–63 (see 451), <i>Essential Peirce</i> v. 2, pp. 346–59 (see 353), and elsewhere.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce (1868), "Some Consequences of Four Incapacities", <i>Journal of Speculative Philosophy</i> v. 2, n. 3, pp. 140–57, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YHkqP2JHJ_IC&pg=RA1-PA141">p. 141</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160415034910/https://books.google.com/books?id=YHkqP2JHJ_IC&pg=RA1-PA141">Archived</a> April 15, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Reprinted in <i>Collected Papers</i>, v. 5, paragraphs 264–317, <i>Writings</i> v. 2, pp. 211–42, <i>Essential Peirce</i> v. 1, pp. 28–55, and elsewhere.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Eveland-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eveland_182-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Eveland, William (2004). "How Web Site Organization Influences Free Recall, Factual Knowledge, and Knowledge Structure Density". <i>Human Communication Research</i>. <b>30</b> (2): 208–33. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2958.2004.tb00731.x">10.1111/j.1468-2958.2004.tb00731.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Communication+Research&rft.atitle=How+Web+Site+Organization+Influences+Free+Recall%2C+Factual+Knowledge%2C+and+Knowledge+Structure+Density&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=208-33&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-2958.2004.tb00731.x&rft.aulast=Eveland&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
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<li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Dickson, David (October 11, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100621053624/http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html">"Science journalism must keep a critical edge"</a>. Science and Development Network. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html">the original</a> on June 21, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Science+journalism+must+keep+a+critical+edge&rft.pub=Science+and+Development+Network&rft.date=2004-10-11&rft.aulast=Dickson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scidev.net%2Fen%2Feditorials%2Fscience-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMooney2004" class="citation magazine">Mooney, Chris (November–December 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/">"Blinded By Science, How 'Balanced' Coverage Lets the Scientific Fringe Hijack Reality"</a>. <i>Columbia Journalism Review</i>. Vol. 43 no. 4. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100117181240/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/">Archived</a> from the original on January 17, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 20,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Columbia+Journalism+Review&rft.atitle=Blinded+By+Science%2C+How+%27Balanced%27+Coverage+Lets+the+Scientific+Fringe+Hijack+Reality&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2004-11%2F2004-12&rft.aulast=Mooney&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.discovermagazine.com%2Fintersection%2F2010%2F01%2F15%2Fblinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMcIlwaineNguyen2005" class="citation journal">McIlwaine, S.; Nguyen, D.A. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064">"Are Journalism Students Equipped to Write About Science?"</a>. <i>Australian Studies in Journalism</i>. <b>14</b>: 41–60. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080801163322/http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064">Archived</a> from the original on August 1, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 20,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australian+Studies+in+Journalism&rft.atitle=Are+Journalism+Students+Equipped+to+Write+About+Science%3F&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=41-60&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=McIlwaine&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Nguyen%2C+D.A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fespace.library.uq.edu.au%2Fview%2FUQ%3A8064&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Goldberg, Jeanne (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180816182350/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues">"The Politicization of Scientific Issues: Looking through Galileo's Lens or through the Imaginary Looking Glass"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i>. <b>41</b> (5): 34–39. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues">the original</a> on August 16, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 16,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=The+Politicization+of+Scientific+Issues%3A+Looking+through+Galileo%27s+Lens+or+through+the+Imaginary+Looking+Glass&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=34-39&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Goldberg&rft.aufirst=Jeanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fsi%2Fshow%2Fpoliticization_of_scientific_issues&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Bolsen, Toby; Druckman, James N. (2015). "Counteracting the Politicization of Science". <i>Journal of Communication</i> (65): 746.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Communication&rft.atitle=Counteracting+the+Politicization+of+Science&rft.issue=65&rft.pages=746&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Bolsen&rft.aufirst=Toby&rft.au=Druckman%2C+James+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Freudenberg_2008-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Freudenberg_2008_188-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Freudenberg_2008_188-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Freudenberg, William F. "Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt". <i>Sociological Inquiry</i>. <b>78</b>: 2–38. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-682X.2008.00219">10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219</a> (inactive August 28, 2019).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Inquiry&rft.atitle=Scientific+Certainty+Argumentation+Methods+%28SCAMs%29%3A+Science+and+the+Politics+of+Doubt&rft.volume=78&rft.pages=2-38&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-682X.2008.00219&rft.aulast=Freudenberg&rft.aufirst=William+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-van_Der_Linden2017-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-van_Der_Linden2017_189-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">van der Linden, Sander; Leiserowitz, Anthony; Rosenthal, Seth; Maibach, Edward (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/1810/270860/1/global%20challenges.pdf">"Inoculating the Public against Misinformation about Climate Change"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Global Challenges</i>. <b>1</b> (2): 1. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1002%2Fgch2.201600008">10.1002/gch2.201600008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Challenges&rft.atitle=Inoculating+the+Public+against+Misinformation+about+Climate+Change&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fgch2.201600008&rft.aulast=van+der+Linden&rft.aufirst=Sander&rft.au=Leiserowitz%2C+Anthony&rft.au=Rosenthal%2C+Seth&rft.au=Maibach%2C+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.repository.cam.ac.uk%2Fbitstream%2F1810%2F270860%2F1%2Fglobal%2520challenges.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047268">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<ul><li>Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N., <i>The New Story of Science: mind and the universe</i>, Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery Gateway, c1984. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89526-833-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-89526-833-7">0-89526-833-7</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Becker" title="Ernest Becker">Becker, Ernest</a> (1968). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/structureofevila00beck"><i>The structure of evil; an essay on the unification of the science of man</i></a></span>. New York: G. Braziller.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+structure+of+evil%3B+an+essay+on+the+unification+of+the+science+of+man&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=G.+Braziller&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Ernest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstructureofevila00beck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li>Burguete, Maria, and Lam, Lui, eds.(2014). <i>All About Science: Philosophy, History, Sociology & Communication</i>. World Scientific: Singapore. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4472-92-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-4472-92-0">978-981-4472-92-0</a></li>
<li>Cole, K.C., <i>Things your teacher never told you about science: Nine shocking revelations</i> <a href="/wiki/Newsday" title="Newsday">Newsday</a>, <a href="/wiki/Long_Island,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Long Island, New York">Long Island, New York</a>, March 23, 1986, pp. 21+</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Crease, Robert P. (2011). <i>World in the Balance: the historic quest for an absolute system of measurement</i>. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 317. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-07298-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-07298-3"><bdi>978-0-393-07298-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+in+the+Balance%3A+the+historic+quest+for+an+absolute+system+of+measurement&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=317&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-393-07298-3&rft.aulast=Crease&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li>Lydia Denworth, "A Significant Problem: Standard scientific methods are under fire. Will anything change?", <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>, vol. 321, no. 4 (October 2019), pp. 62–67. "The use of <a href="/wiki/P_value" class="mw-redirect" title="P value"><i>p</i> values</a> for nearly a century [since 1925] to determine <a href="/wiki/Statistical_significance" title="Statistical significance">statistical significance</a> of <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimental</a> results has contributed to an illusion of <a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">certainty</a> and [to] <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">reproducibility crises</a> in many scientific fields. There is growing determination to reform statistical analysis... Some [researchers] suggest changing statistical methods, whereas others would do away with a threshold for defining "significant" results." (p. 63.)</li>
<li>Feyerabend, Paul (2005). <i>Science, history of the philosophy</i>, as cited in <cite class="citation book">Honderich, Ted (2005). <i>The Oxford companion to philosophy</i>. Oxford <a href="/wiki/Oxfordshire" title="Oxfordshire">Oxfordshire</a>: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7"><bdi>978-0-19-926479-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/173262485">173262485</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+companion+to+philosophy&rft.place=Oxford+Oxfordshire&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F173262485&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926479-7&rft.au=Honderich%2C+Ted&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Feynman, Richard P. (1999). Robbins, Jeffrey (ed.). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pleasureoffindin00rich"><i>The pleasure of finding things out the best short works of Richard P. Feynman</i></a></span>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Books. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465013128" title="Special:BookSources/978-0465013128"><bdi>978-0465013128</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+pleasure+of+finding+things+out+the+best+short+works+of+Richard+P.+Feynman&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Perseus+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0465013128&rft.aulast=Feynman&rft.aufirst=Richard+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpleasureoffindin00rich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Feynman, R.P. (1999). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pleasureoffindin00feyn"><i>The Pleasure of Finding Things Out: The Best Short Works of Richard P. Feynman</i></a></span>. Perseus Books Group. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02395-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02395-0"><bdi>978-0-465-02395-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/181597764">181597764</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pleasure+of+Finding+Things+Out%3A+The+Best+Short+Works+of+Richard+P.+Feynman&rft.pub=Perseus+Books+Group&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F181597764&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02395-0&rft.au=Feynman%2C+R.P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpleasureoffindin00feyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li>Feynman, Richard <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://calteches.library.caltech.edu/51/02/CargoCult.pdf">"Cargo Cult Science"</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Gaukroger, Stephen (2006). <i>The Emergence of a Scientific Culture: Science and the Shaping of Modernity 1210–1685</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-929644-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-929644-6"><bdi>978-0-19-929644-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emergence+of+a+Scientific+Culture%3A+Science+and+the+Shaping+of+Modernity+1210%E2%80%931685&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-929644-6&rft.aulast=Gaukroger&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li>Gopnik, Alison, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amacad.org/publications/winter2004/gopnik.pdf">"Finding Our Inner Scientist"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daedalus_(journal)" title="Daedalus (journal)">Daedalus</a>, Winter 2004.</li>
<li>Krige, John, and Dominique Pestre, eds., <i>Science in the Twentieth Century</i>, Routledge 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-28606-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-28606-9">0-415-28606-9</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yuval_Levin" title="Yuval Levin">Levin, Yuval</a> (2008). <i>Imagining the Future: Science and American Democracy</i>. New York, Encounter Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59403-209-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-59403-209-2">1-59403-209-2</a></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFLindberg1976" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">Lindberg, D.C.</a> (1976). <i>Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theories+of+Vision+from+al-Kindi+to+Kepler&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=D.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Samuel_Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Samuel Kuhn">Kuhn, Thomas</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i>, 1962.</li>
<li><cite class="citation book">William F., McComas (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/roe/Knowability_590/Week2/Myths%20of%20Science.pdf">"The principal elements of the nature of science: Dispelling the myths"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In McComas, William F. (ed.). <i>The nature of science in science education: rationales and strategies</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-6168-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-6168-8"><bdi>978-0-7923-6168-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+principal+elements+of+the+nature+of+science%3A+Dispelling+the+myths&rft.btitle=The+nature+of+science+in+science+education%3A+rationales+and+strategies&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-6168-8&rft.aulast=William+F.&rft.aufirst=McComas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fearthweb.ess.washington.edu%2Froe%2FKnowability_590%2FWeek2%2FMyths%2520of%2520Science.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1954" class="citation journal"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a> (1954). <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" title="Science and Civilisation in China">"Science and Civilisation in China: Introductory Orientations"</a>. <b>1</b>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Introductory+Orientations&rft.volume=1&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-hidden-error error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Obler, Paul C.; Estrin, Herman A. (1962). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newscientistessa00oble"><i>The New Scientist: Essays on the Methods and Values of Modern Science</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Anchor_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Anchor Books">Anchor Books</a>, Doubleday.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Scientist%3A+Essays+on+the+Methods+and+Values+of+Modern+Science&rft.pub=Anchor+Books%2C+Doubleday&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Obler&rft.aufirst=Paul+C.&rft.au=Estrin%2C+Herman+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewscientistessa00oble&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Papineau" title="David Papineau">Papineau, David</a>. (2005). <i>Science, problems of the philosophy of.</i>, as cited in <cite class="citation book">Honderich, Ted (2005). <i>The Oxford companion to philosophy</i>. Oxford <a href="/wiki/Oxfordshire" title="Oxfordshire">Oxfordshire</a>: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7"><bdi>978-0-19-926479-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/173262485">173262485</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+companion+to+philosophy&rft.place=Oxford+Oxfordshire&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F173262485&rft.isbn=978-0-19-926479-7&rft.au=Honderich%2C+Ted&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFParkin1991" class="citation book">Parkin, D. (1991). "Simultaneity and Sequencing in the Oracular Speech of Kenyan Diviners". In Philip M. Peek (ed.). <i>African Divination Systems: Ways of Knowing</i>. Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Simultaneity+and+Sequencing+in+the+Oracular+Speech+of+Kenyan+Diviners&rft.btitle=African+Divination+Systems%3A+Ways+of+Knowing&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+IN&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Parkin&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Russell, Bertrand (1985) [1952]. <i>The Impact of Science on Society</i>. London: Unwin. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-04-300090-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-04-300090-8"><bdi>978-0-04-300090-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Impact+of+Science+on+Society&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Unwin&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-04-300090-8&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Rutherford, F. James; Ahlgren, Andrew (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scienceforallame00ruth"><i>Science for all Americans</i></a>. New York, NY: <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>, Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506771-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506771-2"><bdi>978-0-19-506771-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+for+all+Americans&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=American+Association+for+the+Advancement+of+Science%2C+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-19-506771-2&rft.aulast=Rutherford&rft.aufirst=F.+James&rft.au=Ahlgren%2C+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscienceforallame00ruth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFSmith2001" class="citation book">Smith, A. Mark (2001). Written at Philadelphia. <a href="/wiki/De_Aspectibus" class="mw-redirect" title="De Aspectibus"><i>Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's </i>De Aspectibus<i>, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's </i>Kitāb al-Manāẓir<i>, 2 vols</i></a>. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. <b>91</b>. <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>: <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-914-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87169-914-5"><bdi>978-0-87169-914-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/47168716">47168716</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alhacen%27s+Theory+of+Visual+Perception%3A+A+Critical+Edition%2C+with+English+Translation+and+Commentary%2C+of+the+First+Three+Books+of+Alhacen%27s+De+Aspectibus%2C+the+Medieval+Latin+Version+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+Kit%C4%81b+al-Man%C4%81%E1%BA%93ir%2C+2+vols&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.series=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47168716&rft.isbn=978-0-87169-914-5&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/>
<ul><li><cite class="citation journal">Smith, A. Mark (2001). "Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume One". <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>91</b> (4): i–337. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/3657358">3657358</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Alhacen%27s+Theory+of+Visual+Perception%3A+A+Critical+Edition%2C+with+English+Translation+and+Commentary%2C+of+the+First+Three+Books+of+Alhacen%27s+%22De+aspectibus%22%2C+the+Medieval+Latin+Version+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+%22Kit%C4%81b+al-Man%C4%81%E1%BA%93ir%22%3A+Volume+One&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=i-337&rft.date=2001&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3657358&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li>
<li><cite class="citation journal">Smith, A. Mark (2001). "Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume Two". <i>Transactions of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>91</b> (5): 339–819. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.2307%2F3657357">10.2307/3657357</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/3657357">3657357</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Alhacen%27s+Theory+of+Visual+Perception%3A+A+Critical+Edition%2C+with+English+Translation+and+Commentary%2C+of+the+First+Three+Books+of+Alhacen%27s+%22De+aspectibus%22%2C+the+Medieval+Latin+Version+of+Ibn+al-Haytham%27s+%22Kit%C4%81b+al-Man%C4%81%E1%BA%93ir%22%3A+Volume+Two&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=339-819&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3657357&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3657357&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=A.+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li></ul></li>
<li><cite class="citation book">Thurs, Daniel Patrick (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sciencetalkchang00thur"><i>Science Talk: Changing Notions of Science in American Popular Culture</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-4073-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-4073-3"><bdi>978-0-8135-4073-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+Talk%3A+Changing+Notions+of+Science+in+American+Popular+Culture&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-4073-3&rft.aulast=Thurs&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsciencetalkchang00thur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088"/></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
<p><b>Publications</b>
</p>
<ul><li>"<i><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/GCSE_Science" class="extiw" title="b:GCSE Science">GCSE Science textbook</a></i>". <a href="/wiki/Wikibooks" title="Wikibooks">Wikibooks</a>.org</li></ul>
<p><b>Resources</b>
</p>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euroscience.org/">Euroscience</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.id=dv1-57;toc.depth=1;toc.id=dv1-57;brand=default">Classification of the Sciences</a> in <i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i>. (Dictionary's new electronic format is badly botched, entries after "Design" are inaccessible. <i>Internet Archive</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080619205103/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-57">old version</a>).</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.gov/">United States Science Initiative</a> Selected science information provided by US Government agencies, including research & development results</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://undsci.berkeley.edu/index.php">How science works</a> <i><a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Museum_of_Paleontology" title="University of California Museum of Paleontology">University of California Museum of Paleontology</a></i></li></ul>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Glossaries_of_science_and_engineering" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Glossaries_of_science_and_engineering" title="Template:Glossaries of science and engineering"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Glossaries_of_science_and_engineering" title="Template talk:Glossaries of science and engineering"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Glossaries_of_science_and_engineering&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Glossaries_of_science_and_engineering" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Glossaries of science and engineering</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" title="Glossary of aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture" title="Glossary of agriculture">Agriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture" title="Glossary of architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Glossary of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy" title="Glossary of astronomy">Astronomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botany" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of botany">Botany</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_calculus" title="Glossary of calculus">Calculus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" title="Glossary of chemistry terms">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research" title="Glossary of clinical research">Clinical research</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science" title="Glossary of computer science">Computer science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Economics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering" title="Glossary of engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_entomology_terms" title="Glossary of entomology terms">Entomology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" title="Glossary of environmental science">Environmental science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_genetics" title="Glossary of genetics">Genetics</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_geology" title="Glossary of geology">Geology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_machine_vision" title="Glossary of machine vision">Machine vision</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics" title="Glossary of areas of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" title="Glossary of mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_medicine" title="Glossary of medicine">Medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_meteorology" title="Glossary of meteorology">Meteorology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_physics" title="Glossary of physics">Physics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics" title="Glossary of probability and statistics">Probability and statistics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry" title="Glossary of psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics" title="Glossary of robotics">Robotics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_speciation" title="Glossary of speciation">Speciation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li></ul>
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<div class="noprint metadata navbox" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" style="font-weight:bold;padding:0.4em 2em"><ul style="margin:0.1em 0 0"><li style="display:inline"><span style="display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap"><span style="margin:0 0.5em"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="image"><img alt="Nuvola apps kalzium.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/21px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="21" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></span></li></ul></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q336&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th id="Authority_control_frameless_&#124;text-top_&#124;10px_&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata_&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q336&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q336" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" style="vertical-align: text-top" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Nacional_de_Espa%C3%B1a" title="Biblioteca Nacional de España">BNE</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX526275">XX526275</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">BNF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11933232c">cb11933232c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11933232c">(data)</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Authority_File" title="Integrated Authority File">GND</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4066562-8">4066562-8</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh00007934">sh00007934</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">NARA</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10642032">10642032</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" title="National Diet Library">NDL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00571322">00571322</a></span></span></li></ul>
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