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Cleopatra Selene (died 69 BC) was a queen of Seleucid Syria (83–69 BC). The daughter of Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III of Egypt, she became the queen of Egypt in 115 BC when she was married to her brother, King Ptolemy IX, and later probably married King Ptolemy X. In 103 BC, Cleopatra III established an alliance with the Seleucid ruler Antiochus VIII; Cleopatra Selene was sent to be his bride, and stayed with him until his assassination in 96 BC. The widowed queen married her previous husband's brother, Antiochus IX, who died in 95 BC. She then married her stepson, Antiochus X, who probably died in 92 BC. She hid somewhere in Syria with her children until 83 BC, when the Seleucid thrones in Antioch and Damascus became vacant. Declaring her son Antiochus XIII king, she ruled alongside him, according to depictions on coins from the period. She was ousted when the people of Antioch and Damascus, exhausted by the Seleucids' civil wars, invited foreign monarchs as their new rulers. She then controlled several coastal towns until she was besieged, captured and executed in 69 BC by Tigranes in Ptolemais. (Full article...)

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Cleopatra Selene of Syria
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the daughter of Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III of Egypt. For the daughter of Cleopatra VII of Egypt and Mark Antony, see Cleopatra Selene II.
Cleopatra Selene
Cleopatra selene I.png
Obverse: Cleopatra Selene depicted in the foreground with her son Antiochus XIII in the background
Queen consort of Egypt
Tenure	115–107 BC
107–103 BC
Predecessor	Cleopatra IV
Successor	Berenice III
Queen consort of Syria
Tenure	103–96 BC
95 BC
95–92 BC
Predecessor	Tryphaena
Queen regnant of Syria
Reign	83–69 BC
Predecessors	Antiochus XII
Philip I
Successor	Antiochus XIII
Co-king	Regent for her son Antiochus XIII
Born	c. 135–130 BC
Died	69 BC
Seleucia
Spouse	
Ptolemy IX (115–107 BC; divorced)
Ptolemy X (107–103 BC; divorced)
Antiochus VIII (103–96 BC; widowed)
Antiochus IX (95 BC; widowed)
Antiochus X (95–92 BC; widowed)
Issue
Detail	Antiochus XIII
Dynasty	Ptolemaic
Father	Ptolemy VIII
Mother	Cleopatra III
Cleopatra Selene (Greek: ??e?p?t?a Se????; c.?135/130 – 69 BC) was the monarch of Syria as Cleopatra II Selene (83–69 BC). She was the daughter of Ptolemy VIII of Egypt by Cleopatra III. Cleopatra Selene was favored by her mother and became a pawn in Cleopatra III's political maneuvers. In 115, Cleopatra Selene became the queen of Egypt when she was married to her brother king Ptolemy IX by Cleopatra III as a replacement for the strong Cleopatra IV, who was also a daughter of Cleopatra III. Tension between the king and his mother grew and ended with Ptolemy IX's expulsion from Egypt, leaving Cleopatra Selene behind; she probably then married the new king, Ptolemy X.

In 103, Cleopatra III decided to establish an alliance with Antiochus VIII of Seleucid Syria; Cleopatra Selene was sent as his bride and stayed with him until his assassination in 96 BC. The now widowed queen decided to marry her previous husband's brother, Antiochus IX, but she lost her new husband in 95 BC. She then married her stepson, Antiochus IX's heir, Antiochus X; this was Cleopatra Selene's last marriage. Antiochus X disappeared from the records and is presumed to have died in 92 BC; Cleopatra Selene hid somewhere in Syria with her children until 83 BC when the Seleucid thrones in Antioch, ruled by Philip I, and Damascus, ruled by Antiochus XII, became vacant.

Cleopatra Selene had many children by several husbands. In 83 BC, she declared Antiochus XIII, her son by Antiochus X, king, and seems to have declared herself co-ruler. But the people of both Antioch and Damascus, exhausted by the Seleucids' civil wars, invited foreign monarchs to rule them: Tigranes II of Armenia took Antioch, while Aretas III of Nabataea took Damascus. Cleopatra Selene controlled several coastal towns until 69 BC, when she was besieged by Tigranes in Ptolemais; the Armenian king captured the queen and later executed her.

Contents  [hide] 
1	Historical background
2	Family and name
3	Queen of Egypt
4	Queen of Syria
4.1	Queen consort
4.2	Queen regnant and regent
4.3	Downfall
5	Issue
5.1	By Ptolemy IX
5.2	By Ptolemy X
5.3	By Antiochus X
6	See also
7	Notes
8	References
8.1	Citations
8.2	Sources
9	External links
Historical background[edit]
By the second century BC, the Seleucid Empire and the Ptolemaic Kingdom were weakened by dynastic feuds,[1][2] constant wars against each other (known as the Syrian Wars), and Roman interference.[3] To ease the tension, the two dynasties intermarried;[4] Cleopatra I of Syria married Ptolemy V of Egypt in 193 BC,[5] and her grand-daughter Cleopatra Thea was married to three Syrian kings in succession starting in 150 BC.[6] Those intermarriages helped Egypt destabilize Syria which was especially fragmented between different claimants to the throne;[7] brothers fought between themselves and Egypt interfered by supporting one claimant against the other.[8]

Family and name[edit]
Cleopatra Selene was born between 135 and 130 BC to Ptolemy VIII and his wife Cleopatra III.[9] Cleopatra Selene had many siblings, including Ptolemy IX, Ptolemy X, and Cleopatra IV.[10] Ancient writers, such as Cicero and Appian, mention that the queen's name is Selene,[11][12] and Strabo clarified that she was surnamed "Cleopatra".[13] Coins struck in her name record her as Cleopatra Selene.[14] Selene was the name of the Greek moon goddess and it is connected to the word selas (s??a?), meaning "light".[15] "Cleopatra" was a Ptolemaic dynastic name;[16] it means "famous in her father" or "renowned in her ancestry".[17] As a queen of Syria, she was the second to rule with the name 'Cleopatra', and hence, she is termed "Cleopatra II Selene" to differentiate her from her predecessor and aunt Cleopatra I Thea,[note 1][19] who was also the mother of Cleopatra Selene's husbands, Antiochus VIII and Antiochus IX.[20] Classicist Grace Macurdy numbered Cleopatra Selene as "Cleopatra V" within the Ptolemaic dynasty and many historians have used this convention.[21]

Queen of Egypt[edit]
Sibling marriage was known in ancient Egypt, and although it was not a general practice, it was acceptable for the Egyptians;[22] the Ptolemaics practiced it, perhaps to consolidate the dynasty.[23] In 116 BC, Ptolemy VIII died and his will left Cleopatra III to rule alongside a co-ruler of her choice from between her two sons; she wanted to choose Ptolemy X but the people of Alexandria (the capital of Egypt) opposed this, forcing her to accept Ptolemy IX's ascension to the throne.[24] The new king had married his sister Cleopatra IV before the death of their father.[25] Shortly after his elevation,[26] Cleopatra III forced Ptolemy IX to divorce Cleopatra IV;[27] the 2nd-century historian Justin implied that Cleopatra III made this a condition of accepting Ptolemy as co-ruler.[28] Cleopatra Selene, favored by her mother Cleopatra III, was chosen as the new queen consort in 115 BC.[9] In 107 BC, the relationship between Ptolemy IX and his mother deteriorated;[29] Cleopatra III forced him out of Egypt, and he left his wife and children behind.[30]

The same year, 107 BC, Cleopatra Selene was probably married off to the new king, her younger brother, Ptolemy X.[31] In 103 BC, Ptolemy IX was fighting in Judea.[32] The queen mother feared an alliance against her between Ptolemy IX and his friend Antiochus IX of Syria, who was fighting a civil war with his brother Antiochus VIII; this led her to send troops to Syria.[30] Ptolemy X abandoned his mother and ran away, according to Justin,[33] and Cleopatra III then decided to marry Cleopatra Selene to Antiochus VIII[33] as a step to bring Antiochus VIII to her side in order to counter an alliance between Ptolemy IX and Antiochus IX.[30] Cleopatra Selene was divorced from Ptolemy X and sent to Syria.[note 2][31]

Queen of Syria[edit]
Queen consort[edit]
Ancient coin depicting a Seleucid ruler (Antiochus VIII)
Antiochus VIII, Cleopatra Selene's first Syrian husband
Ancient coin depicting a Seleucid ruler (Antiochus IX)
Antiochus IX, Cleopatra Selene's second Syrian husband
Ancient coin depicting a Seleucid ruler (Antiochus X)
Antiochus X, Cleopatra Selene's third Syrian husband
Ancient coin depicting a Seleucid ruler (Antiochus XIII)
Antiochus XIII, Cleopatra Selene's son
Details of Cleopatra Selene's life with Antiochus VIII are not clear; no known offspring resulted from the marriage,[36] though six of Antiochus VIII's children from his previous marriage are known.[37] In 96 BC, Herakleon of Beroia, a general of Antiochus VIII, assassinated his monarch and tried to usurp the throne, but failed and retreated to his home-town Beroia.[38] The capital of Syria, Antioch, was part of Antiochus VIII's realm at the time of his assassination; Cleopatra Selene probably resided there.[note 3][40]

The queen held out in the capital for a while before marrying Antiochus IX.[36] The manner in which Antiochus IX took control of Antioch and his new wife in 95 BC is not clear; he could have taken the city by force or it could be that Cleopatra Selene herself opened the gates for him.[40] In the view of historian Auguste Bouché-Leclercq, Cleopatra Selene had little reason to trust the five sons of her previous husband;[36] the queen needed an ally who would help her control the capital while Antiochus IX needed a wife and Cleopatra Selene's influence over the city's garrison and her late husband's officials.[40] It is unlikely that this marriage was received well by Antiochus VIII's sons. The first of them to act was Seleucus VI who was established in Cilicia.[41] Within a year of his marriage to Cleopatra Selene, Antiochus IX marched against his nephew but was defeated and killed.[41] Soon afterwards, Seleucus entered the capital. Cleopatra Selene probably fled before the new king's arrival.[41] Alternatively, she might have been sent to Arados by Antiochus IX for protection before he marched against Seleucus.[41]

In 95/94 BC, Antiochus X, the son of Antiochus IX, proclaimed himself king in Arados,[41] and married Cleopatra Selene, who was his step-mother.[42] Antiochus pushed Seleucus VI out of Antioch in 94 BC.[42] The marriage was scandalous. Appian wrote an anecdote concerning the epithet of Antiochus X, "Eusebes" ("the pious"): it was given to him by the Syrians to mock his show of loyalty to his father by bedding his widow.[43] The rationale for the marriage might have been pragmatic: Antiochus X sought to be king, but had little resources and needed a queen.[44] Cleopatra Selene was in her forties and could not simply marry a foreign king. Furthermore, the Seleucid dynasty had a precedent of a son marrying his stepmother: Antiochus I had married his stepmother Stratonice, and this might have made it easier for Cleopatra Selene.[44] The last evidence for the reign of Antiochus X is dated to 92 BC,[45] and he is generally assumed to have died at around this date,[46] but ancient sources contain contradictory accounts and dates, and the numismatist Oliver D. Hoover suggested the date of 88 BC for Antiochus' demise.[47][48]

Queen regnant and regent[edit]
Cleopatra Selene's location during the reign of Antiochus' successors in Antioch, such as Philip I (one of Antiochus VIII's sons), is unknown. She evidently hid with her children somewhere in Syria,[49] and possibly fled to Coele-Syria or Cilicia.[50][51] Antiochus XII, another son of Antiochus VIII who was ruling in Damascus, died in 83 BC and it seems that Philip followed the same year.[52] Cleopatra Selene then pushed her children to claim the right of Antiochus X on the vacant throne,[53][49] with herself as the regent, based on the evidence of jugate coins which depict her alongside her ruling son.[54] Three of Cleopatra Selene's jugate coins have been found,[52] and they depict her son Antiochus XIII in the background and herself in the foreground, in the style of a queen regnant,[55] where the queen's name is written before that of the king's.[14] The children probably remained in Cilicia or somewhere else in Asia Minor for protection, which would explain Antiochus XIII's nickname, "Asiaticus".[55]

Cleopatra Selene's claims of authority were not generally accepted by the Syrians, who were frustrated by the Seleucids' constant civil wars.[56][52] In 83 BC, the people of Antioch invited Tigranes II of Armenia to rule Syria, while the people of Damascus invited Aretas III, King of the Nabataeans.[52] Tigranes never controlled the entire country and took Damascus only in 72 BC.[57] When she declared her son king, Cleopatra Selene controlled lands in Cilicia or Phoenicia or both.[55] The archeologist Alfred Raymond Bellinger suggested that she was in control of several coastal Syrian cities from a base in Cilicia; she certainly controlled Ptolemais and probably Seleucia Pieria.[49] The 1st-century historian Josephus wrote of "Selene ... who ruled in Syria",[52] indicating her continued influence despite her never controlling the capital Antioch.[57]

Based on her coins, Hoover suggested that Selene operated from Damascus;[54] those coins used a broken-bar Alpha, cursive Epsilon and squared Sigma.[58] This typography appeared in the Damascene coins of Demetrius III and Antiochus XII and is otherwise rare in the Hellenistic world.[58] If her currency was minted in Damascus,[note 4] then it dates to the period between 83 BC and Tigranes' occupation of the city in 72/71 BC;[note 5][61] Damascus' history is obscure in this period and Hoover suggested that Aretas III's rule in the city did not last long before Cleopatra Selene took control.[note 6][61]

In 75 BC, Cleopatra Selene sent Antiochus XIII and his brother to Rome, where they stayed until 73 BC, then returned to Syria;[62][57] they claimed the throne of Egypt based on their mother's birthright.[57] To impress the Roman Senate, the queen endowed her children with sufficient assets, which included a jewelled candelabrum that was dedicated to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus.[57] The Senate refused to hear their petition for the Egyptian throne,[62] but, according to Cicero, their de jure right to the Syrian throne which they had inherited from their ancestors was already acknowledged.[62]

Downfall[edit]
In 69 BC, Tigranes besieged Cleopatra Selene in Ptolemais; the city fell according to Josephus, but Tigranes had to move north fast as the Romans started attacking Armenia.[19] According to Strabo, Tigranes imprisoned the queen in Seleucia and later had her killed.[63] The historian John D. Grainger explained Tigranes' action as a consequence of Cleopatra Selene's political importance; she was a winning card in the hands of her husbands, and Tigranes sought to deny other ambitious men from acquiring influence through her.[64] Others see Cleopatra Selene as a pawn in political schemes who later evolved into a schemer in her own right, one who decided her actions effectively based on her own benefit.[65]

Issue[edit]
By Ptolemy IX[edit]
Cleopatra Berenice (Berenice III), whose mother's identity is not certain, might have been a daughter of Cleopatra Selene, but Cleopatra IV is also a candidate and is favored by modern scholarship.[66]
According to Justin, Cleopatra Selene and Ptolemy IX had two children;[67] the historian John Whitehorne noted that the existence of those two children is doubted and they might have died at a young age.[68] In 103 BC, Cleopatra III sent all her grandsons and treasures to the island of Kos for protection in preparation for the queen mother's war with Ptolemy IX.[30] In 88 BC, Mithridates VI of Pontus captured all the Egyptian royals in Kos; the two children of Cleopatra Selene mentioned by Justin, if they actually existed and were sent to Kos by Cleopatra III, would have been among the captured.[69]
Ptolemy XII, the father of Cleopatra VII,[18][70] and his brother Ptolemy of Cyprus.[71] Ptolemy XII's legitimacy was historically questioned;[note 7] his father was certainly Ptolemy IX but his mother's identity is vague.[74] Cicero wrote that Ptolemy XII was royal "neither in birth nor in spirit",[72] but the classicist John Pentland Mahaffy noted that Cicero's words indicate that Ptolemy XII's mother was not a reigning queen at his birth, and so could be Cleopatra IV,[75] whose marriage to Ptolemy IX can be considered morganatic (a marriage between people of unequal social rank).[note 8][78]
Historian Christopher J. Bennett considered Ptolemy XII and his brother identical with the two children mentioned by Justin,[note 9] but proposed that they were the children of Cleopatra IV, considered illegitimate because of their parents "morganatic" marriage.[81] Hence, Cleopatra Selene was not the biological mother, rather, she was the official mother, thus explaining her attempt to raise one of her sons to the throne of Egypt in 75 BC by repudiating Ptolemy XII's legitimacy.[note 10][82] Whitehorne, citing Cleopatra Selene's denial of Ptolemy XII's illegitimacy, refused to identify Ptolemy XII and his brother as the two children mentioned in Justin's work.[80]
By Ptolemy X[edit]
Cleopatra Selene possibly bore Ptolemy X his son Ptolemy XI but her maternity can not be confirmed;[31] Cleopatra IV might have been the mother instead, but this is also an assumption and the identity of Ptolemy XI's mother remains a mystery.[68]

By Antiochus X[edit]
Identifying Antiochus X and Cleopatra Selene's children is problematic; Cicero wrote that the queen had two sons, one of them named Antiochus.[83] More children, perhaps a daughter, might have resulted from the marriage, but it can not be confirmed;[84] according to Plutarch, Tigranes II "put to death the successors of Seleucus, and [carried] off their wives and daughters into captivity".[85] Thus, it is possible that Cleopatra Selene had a daughter captured by Tigranes.[86]

Antiochus XIII: this son is the Antiochus of Cicero,[85] who, as a sole monarch following his mother's death, appears on his coins as Antiochus Philadelphos ("brother-loving"), but on coins where Cleopatra Selene is depicted along with her ruling son, the king is named Antiochus Philometor ("mother-loving").[87] This has led scholars to propose various theories: Kay Ehling, reasserting the view of Bouché-Leclercq, suggested that Cleopatra Selene had two sons, both named Antiochus.[87] But Cicero, who left one of the brothers unnamed, is clear that only one of them was named Antiochus;[83] for Ehling's proposal to be valid, Antiochus Philometor should be the Antiochus mentioned by Cicero, then he died and his brother, who had a different name, assumed the dynastic name Antiochus with the epithet Philadelphos, but this scenario is complicated and remains a mere hypothesis.[85] Thus, Antiochus XIII bore two epithets: Philadelphos and Philometor.[88]
Seleucus Kybiosaktes: the second son of Cleopatra Selene, who was unnamed by Cicero and does not appear in other ancient sources,[62] is generally identified by modern scholarship with a character named Seleucus Kybiosaktes, who appeared c.?58 BC in Egypt as a husband of Berenice IV of Egypt.[89] Kybiosaktes was never associated with Cleopatra Selene in the ancient sources; solid evidence is lacking and the identification remains a theory.[note 11][89]
Seleucus VII: in 2002, the numismatist Brian Kritt announced the discovery and decipherment of a coin bearing the portrait of Cleopatra Selene and a co-ruler;[91][92] Kritt read the name of the ruler as Seleucus Philometor and, based on the epithet, identified him with Cleopatra Selene's son, unnamed by Cicero.[90] Kritt gave the newly discovered ruler the regnal name Seleucus VII, and considered it very likely that he is identical with Kybiosaktes.[93] The reading of "Seleucus VII" was accepted by some scholars such as Lloyd Llewellyn Jones and Michael Roy Burgess,[31][52] but Hoover rejected Kritt's reading, noting that the coin was badly damaged and some letters were unreadable; Hoover read the king's name as Antiochus and identified him with Antiochus XIII.[92]
See also[edit]
flag	Syria portal
List of Syrian monarchs
Timeline of Syrian history
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ In the Prosopographia Ptolemaica, Selene's entry is numbered 14520.[18]
Jump up ^ Justin wrote that Cleopatra III "made two daughters husbandless by marrying them to their brothers in turn".[34] This, in Christopher J. Bennett's view, indicates the divorce of Cleopatra Selene and Ptolemy X; it directly claimed that each of Cleopatra III's sons was forced to divorce his sister by the queen mother.[35] It is known that Ptolemy IX was forced to divorce Cleopatra IV, who, afterwards, was never in a position where the queen mother could force her to be divorced from Ptolemy X.[35] This leaves a forced divorce between Cleopatra Selene and Ptolemy X as the only possible option to explain Justin's remark.[35]
Jump up ^ In the view of John Whitehorne, Cleopatra Selene stayed in the palace under Herakleon then fled to Antiochus IX in Antioch after realizing that Herakleon would never be accepted as king.[39] There is no evidence that Herakleon ever controlled Antioch, and the place where he assassinated his king is not known.[40]
Jump up ^ Brian Kritt and Michael Roy Burgess suggested Ptolemais.[58]
Jump up ^ Oliver D. Hoover suggested that Tigranes invaded Syria only in 74 BC, with Philip I ruling until that year in Northern Syria.[59] In a paper presented at the 131st annual meeting of the American Historical Association, Nikolaus Overtoom, based on Hoover's chronology, suggested that Cleopatra Selene was in control of the south while Philip I ruled the north until 75 BC; his death meant that Cleopatra Selene's son was the strongest candidate to the throne but Philip's faction, being opposed to Cleopatra Selene, offered the crown to Tigranes who invaded and conquered the country in 74 BC.[60]
Jump up ^ This scenario might actually have been reversed: Cleopatra Selene took Damascus after Antiochus XII's death and was replaced by Aretas before 73 BC.[51]
Jump up ^ The Romans generally accepted Ptolemy XII as legitimate.[18] Many ancient writers questioned Ptolemy XII's legitimacy: Pompeius Trogus, who called him a "nothos" (bastard) and Pausanias, who wrote that Berenice III was Ptolemy IX's only legitimate offspring.[72] Michael Grant suggested that Ptolemy XII's mother was a Syrian or a partly Greek concubine while Günther Hölbl suggested that she was an Egyptian elite.[70] Robert Steven Bianchi declared that "there is unanimity amongst genealogists that the identification, and hence ethnicity, of the maternal grandmother of Cleopatra VIII is currently not known".[73]
Jump up ^ Ptolemy IX might have married Cleopatra IV while a prince ruling Cyprus; no other Ptolemaic king married his sister before ascending the throne.[25] Christopher J. Bennett suggested that Ptolemy IX's marriage to Cleopatra IV breached important rules of the dynasty: incest was not part of Greek culture and Ptolemaic brother-sister marriages were justified by the divinity of the king; a prince marrying his sister was an act of claiming divinity enjoyed only by the king,[76] and any children born to a prince and his sister before his ascension were likely to be considered illegitimate by the royal family.[77]
Jump up ^ Ptolemy XI, son of Ptolemy X, was among the princes captured by Mithridates VI and escaped, but it is known that Mithridates still had two Egyptian princes in his hands.[79] Ptolemy XII and his brother Ptolemy of Cyprus were in Syria before being called to Egypt following Ptolemy XI's death;[79] according to Whitehorne, this could be explained with them being the two children of Cleopatra Selene who made it to Syria from Pontus when Mithridates' son in law Tigranes II conquered it.[79] But Whitehorne then noted that the tradition of Ptolemy XII's illegitimacy is mentioned by contemporary authors and that Cleopatra Selene confirmed it when she tried to oust Ptolemy XII from Egypt in the 70s BC and replace him with one of her legitimate children.[80]
Jump up ^ Walter Gustav Albrecht Otto and Hermann Bengtson also argued that Ptolemy XII and his brother were the two children of Ptolemy IX and Cleopatra Selene mentioned by Justin; they explained the illegitimacy claims as a tool exploited by influential Romans who were hoping to benefit from Ptolemy XI's will which allegedly bequeathed Egypt to Rome.[71]
Jump up ^ Cassius Dio mentioned a certain "Seleucus" who appeared in 58 BC as a husband of Berenice IV whom she had killed,[62] while Strabo mentioned that the Syrian husband had the epithet "Kybiosaktes" ("salt-fish dealer") and pretended to be of Seleucid lineage before being killed by the queen.[62] Thus, Bellinger named Berenice IV's short-lived husband Seleucus Kybiosaktes, and differentiated him from a Seleucid candidate for Berenice's hand who died of a sudden illness, mentioned in the work of Eusebius who took the information from the writings of Porphyry.[62] The Seleucid who fell ill is suspected to be the same as Kybiosaktes by Edwyn Bevan.[90] The parallels between the accounts of Dio Cassius and Strabo, and their similarities with Porphyry's account, suggest that all those historians were writing about the same person, and modern scholarship has come to identify Cleopatra Selene's unnamed son with Seleucus Kybiosaktes but this remain a theory.[90]
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Marciak 2017, p. 8.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1994, p. 318.
Jump up ^ Goodman 2005, p. 37.
Jump up ^ Tinsley 2006, p. 179.
Jump up ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 81.
Jump up ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 149.
Jump up ^ Kelly 2016, p. 82.
Jump up ^ Kosmin 2014, p. 23.
^ Jump up to: a b Llewellyn Jones 2013, p. 1572.
Jump up ^ Green 1990, p. 548.
Jump up ^ Cicero 1856, p. 426.
Jump up ^ Appian 1912, p. 237.
Jump up ^ Strabo 1857, p. 161.
^ Jump up to: a b Bellinger 1952, p. 53.
Jump up ^ Kerényi 1951, p. 196.
Jump up ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 143.
Jump up ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Siani-Davies 1997, p. 309.
^ Jump up to: a b Burgess 2004, p. 21.
Jump up ^ Boiy 2004, p. 180.
Jump up ^ Dumitru 2016, p. 253.
Jump up ^ Carney 2013, p. 74.
Jump up ^ Carney 1987, p. 434.
Jump up ^ Ashton 2003, p. 65.
^ Jump up to: a b Bennett 1997, p. 44.
Jump up ^ Bennett 1997, p. 43.
Jump up ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 165.
Jump up ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 134.
Jump up ^ Ogden 1999, p. 94.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Whitehorne 1994, p. 139.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Llewellyn Jones 2013, p. 1573.
Jump up ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 138.
^ Jump up to: a b Dumitru 2016, p. 258.
Jump up ^ Atkinson 2012, p. 117.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bennett 2002.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dumitru 2016, p. 260.
Jump up ^ Chrubasik 2016, p. XXIV.
Jump up ^ Dumitru 2016, pp. 260, 261.
Jump up ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 167.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Dumitru 2016, p. 261.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Dumitru 2016, p. 262.
^ Jump up to: a b Dumitru 2016, p. 263.
Jump up ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 168.
^ Jump up to: a b Dumitru 2016, p. 264.
Jump up ^ Dumitru 2016, p. 2634.
Jump up ^ Hoover 2007, p. 290.
Jump up ^ Dumitru 2016, p. 265.
Jump up ^ Hoover 2007, p. 294.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bellinger 1949, p. 79.
Jump up ^ Hoover 2011, p. 260.
^ Jump up to: a b Houghton, Lorber & Hoover 2008, p. 613.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Burgess 2004, p. 20.
Jump up ^ Burgess 2004, pp. 20, 21.
^ Jump up to: a b Houghton, Lorber & Hoover 2008, p. 616.
^ Jump up to: a b c Burgess 2004, p. 24.
Jump up ^ Bellinger 1949, p. 80.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Bellinger 1949, p. 81.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hoover 2005, p. 98.
Jump up ^ Hoover 2007, p. 297.
Jump up ^ Overtoom 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Hoover 2005, p. 99.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Kritt 2002, p. 26.
Jump up ^ Bellinger 1949, p. 82.
Jump up ^ Grainger 1997, p. 45.
Jump up ^ Dumitru 2016, p. 271.
Jump up ^ Llewellyn-Jones 2013, p. 1567.
Jump up ^ Justin 1742, p. 282.
^ Jump up to: a b Whitehorne 1994, p. 176.
Jump up ^ Whitehorne 1994, p. 224.
^ Jump up to: a b Fletcher 2008, p. 353.
^ Jump up to: a b Otto & Bengtson 1938, p. 117.
^ Jump up to: a b Sullivan 1990, p. 92.
Jump up ^ Bianchi 2003, p. 13.
Jump up ^ Ager 2005, p. 7.
Jump up ^ Mahaffy 1899, p. 225.
Jump up ^ Bennett 1997, p. 45.
Jump up ^ Bennett 1997, p. 46.
Jump up ^ Mahaffy 1899, p. 211.
^ Jump up to: a b c Whitehorne 1994, p. 178.
^ Jump up to: a b Whitehorne 1994, p. 179.
Jump up ^ Bennett 1997, p. 52.
Jump up ^ Bennett 1997, pp. 47, 48, 52.
^ Jump up to: a b Dumitru 2016, p. 268.
Jump up ^ Dumitru 2016, pp. 269, 270.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dumitru 2016, p. 269.
Jump up ^ Dumitru 2016, p. 270.
^ Jump up to: a b Dumitru 2016, p. 267.
Jump up ^ Burgess 2004, pp. 20, 22.
^ Jump up to: a b Kritt 2002, pp. 26, 27.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kritt 2002, p. 27.
Jump up ^ Kritt 2002, p. 25.
^ Jump up to: a b Hoover 2005, p. 95.
Jump up ^ Kritt 2002, p. 28.
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Appian (1912) [162]. Appian's Roman History with an English translation by Horace White in Four Volumes. 2. William Heinemann. OCLC 886392072.
Ashton, Sally-Ann (2003). The Last Queens of Egypt. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-582-77210-6.
Atkinson, Kenneth (2012). Queen Salome: Jerusalem's Warrior Monarch of the First Century B.C.E. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-786-49073-8.
Bellinger, Alfred R. (1949). "The End of the Seleucids". Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. 38. OCLC 4520682.
Bellinger, Alfred R. (1952). "Notes on Some Coins from Antioch in Syria". Museum Notes. The American Numismatic Society. 5. ISSN 0145-1413.
Bennett, Christopher J. (1997). "Cleopatra V Tryphæna and the Genealogy of the Later Ptolemies". Ancient Society. Peeters Publishers. 28. ISSN 0066-1619.
Bennett, Christopher J. (2002). "Cleopatra Selene. Note 13.III". C. J. Bennett. The Egyptian Royal Genealogy Project hosted by the Tyndale House Website. Retrieved October 1, 2017.
Bianchi, Robert Steven (2003). "Images of Cleopatra VII Reconsidered". In Walker, Susan; Ashton, Sally-Ann. Cleopatra Reassessed. British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-861-59103-9.
Boiy, Tom (2004). Late Achaemenid and Hellenistic Babylon. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta. 136. Peeters Publishers & Department of Oriental Studies, Leuven. ISBN 978-9-042-91449-0. ISSN 0777-978X.
Burgess, Michael Roy (2004). "The Moon Is A Harsh Mistress– The Rise and Fall of Cleopatra II Selene, Seleukid Queen of Syria". The Celator. Kerry K. Wetterstrom. 18 (3). ISSN 1048-0986.
Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (1987). "The Reappearance of Royal Sibling Marriage in Ptolemaic Egypt". La Parola del Passato. Gaetano Macchiaroli Editore. 42. ISSN 0031-2355.
Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2013). Arsinoe of Egypt and Macedon: A Royal Life. Women in Antiquity. 4. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-199-71101-7.
Chrubasik, Boris (2016). Kings and Usurpers in the Seleukid Empire: The Men who Would be King. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-198-78692-4.
Cicero (1856) [70 BC]. The Orations of Marcus Tullius Cicero. 1: Orations for Quintius, Sextus Roscius, Quintus Roscius, Against Quintus Cæcilius, and Against Verres. Translated by Yonge, Charles Duke. Henry G. Bohn. OCLC 650273594.
Thompson, Dorothy J. (1994). "Egypt, 146–31 B.C.". In Crook, John Anthony; Lintott, Andrew; Rawson, Elizabeth. The Last Age of the Roman Republic 146-43 B.C. The Cambridge Ancient History (Second Revised Series). 9. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-25603-2.
Dumitru, Adrian (2016). "Kleopatra Selene: A Look at the Moon and Her Bright Side". In Coskun, Altay; McAuley, Alex. Seleukid Royal Women: Creation, Representation and Distortion of Hellenistic Queenship in the Seleukid Empire. Historia – Einzelschriften. 240. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-11295-6. ISSN 0071-7665.
Fletcher, Joann (2008). Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend. Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-83173-1.
Goodman, Martin (2005) [2002]. "Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period". In Goodman, Martin; Cohen, Jeremy; Sorkin, David Jan. The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-199-28032-2.
Grainger, John D. (1997). A Seleukid Prosopography and Gazetteer. Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava. Supplementum. 172. Brill. ISBN 978-9-004-10799-1. ISSN 0169-8958.
Green, Peter (1990). Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age. Hellenistic Culture and Society. 1. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08349-3. ISSN 1054-0857.
Hoover, Oliver D. (2005). "Dethroning Seleucus VII Philometor (Cybiosactes): Epigraphical Arguments Against a Late Seleucid Monarch". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH. 151. ISSN 0084-5388.
Hoover, Oliver D. (2007). "A Revised Chronology for the Late Seleucids at Antioch (121/0-64 BC)". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. Franz Steiner Verlag. 56 (3). ISSN 0018-2311.
Hoover, Oliver D. (2011). "A Second Look at Production Quantification and Chronology in the Late Seleucid Period". In de Callataÿ, François. Time is money? Quantifying Mmonetary Supplies in Greco-Roman Times. Pragmateiai. 19. Edipuglia. ISBN 978-8-872-28599-2. ISSN 2531-5390.
Houghton, Arthur; Lorber, Catherine; Hoover, Oliver D. (2008). Seleucid Coins, A Comprehensive Guide: Part 2, Seleucus IV through Antiochus XIII. 1. The American Numismatic Society. ISBN 978-0-980-23872-3.
Justin (1742) [c. second century]. Justin's History of the World. Translated into English. With a Prefatory Discourse, Concerning the Advantages Masters Ought Chiefly to Have in Their View, in Reading and Ancient Historian, Justin in Particular, with their Scholars. By a Gentleman of the University of Oxford. Translated by Turnbull, George. T. Harris. OCLC 27943964.
Kerényi, Károly (1951). Gods Of The Greeks. Translated by Cameron, Norman. Thames and Hudson. OCLC 752918875.
Kosmin, Paul J. (2014). The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in the Seleucid Empire. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72882-0.
Kritt, Brian (2002). "Numismatic Evidence For A New Seleucid King: Seleucus (VII) Philometor". The Celator. Kerry K. Wetterstrom. 16 (4). ISSN 1048-0986.
Llewellyn Jones, Lloyd (2013) [2012]. "Cleopatra Selene". In Bagnall, Roger S.; Brodersen, Kai; Champion, Craige B.; Erskine, Andrew; Huebner, Sabine R. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History (13 Vols.). III: Be-Co. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-405-17935-5.
Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2013) [2012]. "Cleopatra V Berenike III". In Bagnall, Roger S.; Brodersen, Kai; Champion, Craige B.; Erskine, Andrew; Huebner, Sabine R. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History (13 Vols.). III: Be-Co. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-405-17935-5.
Mahaffy, John Pentland (1899). A History of Egypt Under the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Methuen & Co. OCLC 2735326.
Marciak, Michal (2017). Sophene, Gordyene, and Adiabene. Three Regna Minora of Northern Mesopotamia Between East and West. Impact of Empire. 26. Brill. ISBN 978-9-004-35070-0. ISSN 1572-0500.
Ogden, Daniel (1999). Polygamy, Prostitutes and Death: The Hellenistic Dynasties. Duckworth with the Classical Press of Wales. ISBN 978-0-715-62930-7.
Otto, Walter Gustav Albrecht; Bengtson, Hermann (1938). Zur Geschichte des Niederganges des Ptolemäerreiches: ein Beitrag zur Regierungszeit des 8. und des 9. Ptolemäers. Abhandlungen (Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Philosophisch-Historische Klasse) (in German). 17. Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. OCLC 470076298.
Overtoom, Nikolaus (2017). "Civil War in Syria: The Rise and Fall of the Last Seleucid Queen Cleopatra Selene". Annual Meeting. The 131st. Friday, January 6, 2017: 10:50 AM. Room 302 (Colorado Convention Center). American Historical Association.
Kelly, Douglas (2016). "Alexander II Zabinas (Reigned 128–122)". In Phang, Sara E.; Spence, Iain; Kelly, Douglas; Londey, Peter. Conflict in Ancient Greece and Rome: The Definitive Political, Social, and Military Encyclopedia: The Definitive Political, Social, and Military Encyclopedia (3 Vols.). I. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-610-69020-1.
Siani-Davies, Mary (1997). "Ptolemy XII Auletes and the Romans". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. Franz Steiner Verlag. 46 (3). ISSN 0018-2311.
Strabo (1857) [24]. The Geography of Strabo: Literally Translated, with Notes. 3. Translated by Hamilton, Hans Claude; Falconer, William. Henry G. Bohn. OCLC 977553899.
Sullivan, Richard (1990). Near Eastern Royalty and Rome, 100–30 BC. Phoenix: Supplementary Volume. 24. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-802-02682-8.
Tinsley, Barbara Sher (2006). Reconstructing Western Civilization: Irreverent Essays on Antiquity. Susquehanna University Press. ISBN 978-1-575-91095-6.
Whitehorne, John (1994). Cleopatras. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-05806-3.
External links[edit]
	Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cleopatra Selene of Syria.
The Ptolemaic Dynasty by the late Christopher J. Bennett. Discusses the genealogy of the Ptolemaics in detail.
Cleopatra Selene's coin on the website of the American Numismatic Society
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Eastbourne manslaughter
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
R v Hopley (more commonly known as the Eastbourne manslaughter) was an 1860 legal case in Eastbourne, England, concerning the death of 15-year-old Reginald Cancellor (some sources give his name as Chancellor[1] and his age as 13 or 14)[2] at the hands of his teacher, Thomas Hopley. Hopley used corporal punishment with the stated intention of overcoming what he perceived as stubbornness on Cancellor's part, but instead beat the boy to death.

An inquest into Cancellor's death began when his brother requested an autopsy. As a result of the inquest Hopley was arrested and charged with manslaughter. He was found guilty at trial and sentenced to four years in prison, although he insisted that his actions were justifiable and that he was not guilty of any crime. The trial was sensationalised by the Victorian press and incited debate over the use of corporal punishment in schools. After Hopley's release and subsequent divorce trial, he largely disappeared from the public record. The case became an important legal precedent in the United Kingdom for discussions of corporal punishment in schools and reasonable limits on discipline.

Contents  [hide] 
1	Background
2	Death
3	Trial
4	Reaction and aftermath
5	References
Background[edit]
Thomas Hopley, aged 41 at the time of the incident,[3] was a schoolmaster in Eastbourne who ran a private boarding school from his home at 22 Grand Parade.[4] He was well educated and from a middle-class family, the son of a Royal Navy surgeon and brother of artist Edward Hopley, author Catherine C. Hopley, and editor John Hopley. His household was fairly well off, and he and his wife kept several servants.[5][6] He had two children, the first of which had brain damage – "popular rumour" blamed this on "his unconventionally bracing notions of neonatal care".[7] However, Hopley was described by Algernon Charles Swinburne as "a person of high attainments and irreproachable character".[8] He expressed "utopian" educational ideals shared by many Victorian educational theorists.[5] He wrote pamphlets on education topics[8] which included "Lectures on the Education of Man", "Help towards the physical, intellectual and moral elevation of all classes of society", and "Wrongs which cry out for redress" advocating the abolition of child labour.[9]

In October 1859,[4] he was offered £180 a year (compared to an average annual salary of £94 for a male public elementary school teacher in 1860)[10] to teach Reginald Channell Cancellor, a "robust" boy who had been "given up as ineducable".[7] Reginald was the son of John Henry Cancellor (1799–1860), a master of the Court of Common Pleas and a "man of fair position" from Barnes, Surrey.[7][11] The boy had previously been a student at a private school in St. Leonards and under a private tutor.[12] He was not a good student, with contemporary sources suggesting he "had water on the brain" and describing him as "stolid and stupid".[11] Hopley attributed Cancellor's failure to learn to stubbornness. On 18 April 1860 he asked the boy's father for permission to use "severe corporal punishment" to obtain compliance,[1] with permission granted two days later.[13] Hopley did not possess the cane traditionally used to administer corporal punishment to students, so instead he used a skipping rope and a walking stick.[7]

Death[edit]
Cancellor was found dead in his bedroom on the morning of 22 April. His body was covered, with long stockings over his legs and kidskin gloves on his hands. The only visible part of the body was his face. A medical man of Hopley's acquaintance named Roberts pronounced that the boy had died of natural causes.[7] When questioned, Hopley suggested that Cancellor died of heart disease and argued that he should be buried immediately.[11] He wrote to the boy's father requesting the body's immediate removal and interment.[5] After viewing his son's dressed body, Cancellor's father accepted Roberts' assertion for cause of death and agreed to the burial.[7]

Rumours began to circulate among the Hopleys' servants, suggesting that Hopley's wife had spent the night prior to the body's discovery cleaning up evidence of her husband's murder of the boy.[11] Reginald's older brother, Reverend John Henry Cancellor, Jr. (1834–1900),[7] arrived in Eastbourne from Send, Surrey, on 25 April. He noticed discrepancies in the reports of his brother's death and requested an autopsy.[5] Hopley asked prominent physician Sir Charles Locock, an acquaintance of the Cancellor family and an obstetrician to the Queen, to examine the body and verify death by natural causes; Locock believed that Hopley was responsible for the death.[7]

A complete inquest into Cancellor's death was initiated. His body was taken for autopsy on 28 April and was found to be covered in blood under the gloves and stockings. His thighs were "reduced to a perfect jelly" and his body was covered in bruises and cuts, including two inch-deep holes in his right leg,[11] deep enough to allow the medical examiner, Robert Willis, to touch the bone underneath. Willis reported that other than these injuries, the boy was healthy and his internal organs (including the heart) were free of disease.[14] He thus concluded that Cancellor had not died of natural causes, as Hopley had suggested, and noted that the boy had obviously been beaten shortly before his death.[5][14] A female servant named Ellen Fowler, when questioned by investigators, reported that she had heard Cancellor screaming and being beaten from 10 pm until midnight and that, shortly thereafter, he abruptly fell silent.[11] She also noted traces of blood in the house and on Hopley's candlestick, which was left outside Cancellor's bedroom, and evidence that Cancellor's and Hopley's clothes had been washed soon before the former was pronounced dead.[4] Two other servants testified in the inquiry and gave similar accounts.[15]

The inquest was unable to determine Cancellor's exact cause of death, but noted several inconsistencies in Hopley's explanation of events. He had failed to summon a doctor immediately and, upon questioning, had given outlandish excuses for his failure to do so. Hopley attempted to explain away the blood on the candlestick by attributing it to a broken blister on his hand, but did not offer an explanation for Cancellor's injuries.[4][7] Hopley aroused further suspicion when he asked journalists present at the inquest not to include details of the corporal punishment in their stories, "in order to spare the feelings of the deceased family as of my own". Cancellor's family was deeply affected by the case, as they had been "disinclined" to see Cancellor beaten; his father died shortly after the inquest of a "broken heart."[5]

Trial[edit]

Caricature of Hopley's barrister, William Ballantine
Hopley was arrested in early May and, after a seven-hour preliminary hearing,[16] was released on 16 June on a £2,000 bail. He and his then-pregnant wife spent the period between the initial hearing and the trial at Uckfield.[7] Hopley was confident that he would be found not guilty. He began composing a pamphlet titled Facts Bearing on the Death of Reginald Channell Cancellor, to be published after the trial; it was published by an associate of Hopley's after his conviction and detailed Hopley's explanation of Cancellor's death and his justification for his treatment of the boy.[5][17] The press was extremely hostile, calling for a murder charge to be laid against him. He received a large amount of hate mail from anonymous members of the public.[7]

Hopley's trial took place at Lewes Assizes on 23 July 1860, before the Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench Sir Alexander Cockburn and a jury. The prosecutors were John Humffreys Parry and William Jerome Knapp;[12] Hopley was defended by the serjeant-at-law William Ballantine, who subsequently described Hopley as "distorted".[5][11] Throughout his trial, Hopley described himself as reluctant to use corporal punishment. In describing the events preceding Cancellor's death, Hopley stated that he started crying while beating Cancellor, after which Cancellor presented his lesson and "Hopley took his head on his breast and prayed with him".[8] Hopley presented testimonials from past students who described him as "kindly" and who noted an infrequent use of violence. Hopley claimed to be a paedagogical follower of John Locke, who had decried the use of corporal punishment except in cases of extreme obstinacy on the part of the student. He argued that, through the application of this theory, the beating that killed Cancellor had been a necessary one.[5]

Robert Willis testified at the trial that there was no possibility that Cancellor's death had been a result of natural causes.[14] He presented a detailed description of the boy's injuries, suggesting that they had been sustained over several hours.[2] He also revealed that Cancellor's skull cavity contained six to eight ounces of fluid, attributing to this fluid the boy's seeming inability to learn as described by Hopley, but rejected any suggestions that it may have contributed to Cancellor's death.[18] Cancellor's brother, Fowler, and Locock all testified against Hopley; Locock's testimony was particularly hostile, suggesting that Hopley's incompetent response to interviews was "tantamount to an admission of guilt".[7] Other witnesses included the Hopleys' laundress, Roberts, three members of the coastguard who had seen lights on in the house late at night, a local constable, and the town registrar.[12]


Chief Justice Alexander Cockburn
Ballantine's conduct during the trial was flawed, and he believed Hopley was insane. Although he promoted the testimonials of former students and argued that a schoolmaster was unlikely to "so lightly jeopardize his ambitions", he congratulated Locock on the accuracy of his testimony in open court. Ballantine did not call key witnesses such as Edward Philpott, another student of Hopley's who had been at the house that night. Philpott slept in the bedroom beside Cancellor's and had reported hearing no unusual noises or screams from Cancellor's room on the night of his death. Neither did Ballantine call Professor John Eric Erichsen of University College Hospital, who had conducted a second autopsy on Cancellor on 11 May and suggested that "the misleading appearance of the body was attributable to an undiagnosed blood condition akin to haemophilia".[7] In his memoir Some experiences of a barrister's life, published in 1883, Ballantine offered a highly sensationalised account of Cancellor's death: "the wretched half-witted victim of a lunatic's system of education was deliberately mangled to death".[19]

Hopley was convicted of manslaughter, not murder, because of his position as a schoolteacher "endowed with parental authority".[1] Sir Alexander Cockburn, the Chief Justice of the Court of Queen's Bench, presented a summary of the decision:

By the law of England, a parent or a schoolmaster (who for this purpose represents the parent and has the parental authority delegated to him), may for the purpose of correcting what is evil in the child, inflict moderate and reasonable corporal punishment, always, however, with the condition, that it is moderate and reasonable. If it be administered for the gratification of passion or of rage, or if it be immoderate or excessive in its nature or degree, or if it be protracted beyond the child's powers of endurance, or with an instrument unfitted for the purpose and calculated to produce danger to life and limb: in all such cases the punishment is excessive, the violence unlawful, and if evil consequences to life or limb ensue, then the person inflicting it is answerable to the law, and if death ensues it will be manslaughter.[20]

Cockburn further suggested that Hopley should have realised Cancellor's cognitive deficiencies and taken these into account in his treatment of the boy.[18]

Hopley was sentenced to four years of penal servitude, and was incarcerated in Portsea and Chatham.[11][7] After being indicted, he wrote of himself that "while anguish shook the frame, the conscience suffered not one pang. I searched and searched among the deepest secrets of my soul, and could not blame myself ... I could look up tranquilly into the face of heaven who knew me to be Not Guilty."[21] He believed that his actions were justifiable because he had undertaken them in his duty as schoolteacher.[1] He portrayed himself as a victim of public opinion, claiming that "a mournful accident was swelled up into a bloody midnight murder, and how it has been brought about that my unfortunate name has been branded, not simply through the United Kingdom, but through the civilised world, as one of the most execrable monsters or of madmen."[5] He published a pamphlet arguing that Locock had perjured himself and had conspired with Fowler to influence the outcome of the trial.[7]

Reaction and aftermath[edit]

Hopley was sent to Millbank Prison to serve his sentence.
The trial was sensationalised by contemporary media. The press derided Hopley as "monstrous", and criticised schoolteachers in general and private schoolteachers in particular. Newspapers published graphic accounts of Cancellor's injuries and autopsy and further exaggerated the early rumours surrounding his death. Cancellor's was the first death by corporal punishment to have received broad public interest. To prevent overcrowding, the court issued tickets for admission to the public gallery during the trial;[5] the courtroom was full an hour before the trial began.[3] After Hopley's conviction, he issued at least two pamphlets on model education from gaol, which were poorly received by the public.[8] Hopley's fame was short-lived; a month after his conviction, the press was focused on another case of corporal punishment, that of Caroline Lefevre, whose arms were allegedly burnt by her teacher.[5]

Following Hopley's release from prison, he became immediately embroiled in a sensationalised divorce trial. His wife, Fanny, had petitioned for divorce on the grounds that he was "unloving" and had mistreated her. She claimed that Hopley had married her as an "educational experiment", presenting Hopley's educational theories as evidence of his "lunacy".[5] She had been 18 years old to Hopley's 36 at the time of their marriage in 1855. According to her statements during the trial, Hopley frequently criticised her writing and insisted that the couple's three children should be raised as "second Christs".[22] She accused him of physically abusing her from the time of her first pregnancy,[22] beating their first child only days after its birth (the child was later found to be "brain-damaged"),[7] and suggesting that during his prison sentence she should be confined to a workhouse. Hopley responded by claiming that he set rules only to ensure the maintenance of his household and the wellbeing of his family, and produced a set of romantic letters he had received from Fanny during his incarceration as evidence of her unforced affection for him.[22]

The jury found Hopley guilty of cruelty, but suggested that Fanny had condoned his treatment of her.[22] The judge therefore ruled that her case was insufficient to grant a divorce. The verdict sparked outrage among the public, who believed that "a great injustice had been done", and that Fanny should not be forced to remain married to an abusive convicted killer.[5] Fanny left England shortly afterwards, allegedly to avoid having to continue living with Hopley.[22]

Hopley largely withdrew from the public eye after the trial, becoming a private tutor in London and publishing pamphlets on spiritualism in the late 1860s. He died at University College Hospital on 24 June 1876.[7] A retrospective editorial published in The Times in 1960 concluded that Hopley was not "the villain which some persons pictured him to be"; it noted that at the time of his arrest Hopley had been planning the construction of a "model school" in Brighton and that he had examined architect's drawings of the school after beating Cancellor.[6]

In 1865, Cancellor's death was used in a medical journal article discussing adult hydrocephalus. Despite Willis' statement that Cancellor had no pre-existing medical condition that would have caused or contributed to his death, author Samuel Wilks suggested not only that Cancellor had hydrocephalus, but that he was consequently more susceptible to physical injury as a result.[18] He pointed to the autopsy finding of fluid in Cancellor's brain to support his assertions and argued that this effusion would have caused physical weakness.[18]

R v Hopley was used as an archetypal case for legal commentaries about corporal punishment until physical discipline was officially banned in British schools over a century later.[23] According to education professor Marie Parker-Jenkins, R v Hopley is "the most quoted case of the 19th century involving the issue of corporal punishment".[1] The case is credited with prompting outcry against corporal punishment among the general public, although contemporary education journals rejected the possibility of abolishing corporal punishment.[23] Hopley's defence, known as "reasonable chastisement", became a frequently used response to charges of corporal punishment and was incorporated into the Children and Young Persons Act 1933.[2] Cockburn's requirement for "moderate and reasonable" punishment was established as a legal limit to corporal punishment and is still employed in modern legal scholarship.[24][25]

References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Parker-Jenkins, Marie (1999). Sparing the rod: schools, discipline and children's rights. Trentham Books. pp. 5–13. ISBN 1-85856-159-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c Booth, Penny (2006). "The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Punishment of Children Under English Law – Public and Private Vices?". Liverpool Law Review. 27 (3): 395–416. doi:10.1007/s10991-006-9008-8.
^ Jump up to: a b "Manslaughter by a schoolmaster". The Hull Packet and East Riding Times. 27 July 1860. p. 3.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Manslaughter by a Schoolmaster". Colonist. 24 July 1860. p. 3.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Middleton, Jacob (November 2005). "Thomas Hopley and mid-Victorian attitudes to corporal punishment". History of Education. 34 (6): 599–615. doi:10.1080/00467600500313898. Retrieved 27 September 2010. (Subscription required (help)).
^ Jump up to: a b "A Sussex Tragedy". The Times. 21 April 1960. p. 14.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Moore, Julian (January 2008). "Hopley, Thomas". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Burn, WL (1964). The Age of Equipose: a study of the midwest generation. WW Norton. pp. 42–43, 54.
Jump up ^ Mackay, DP Leinster (January 1977). "Regina v Hopley: Some Historical Reflections on Corporal Punishment". Journal of Educational Administration and History. 9 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1080/0022062770090101.
Jump up ^ Bergen, Barry H (1982). "Only a Schoolmaster: Gender, Class, and the Effort to Professionalize Elementary Teaching in England, 1870–1910". History of Education Quarterly. 22 (1): 11–12. doi:10.2307/367830. JSTOR 367830.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "A schoolboy beaten to death by his schoolmaster". The South Australian Advertiser. 11 September 1860. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Assize Intelligence". Daily News. 24 July 1860. p. 6.
Jump up ^ Parsons, Simon (1 August 2007). "Human Rights and the Defence of Chastisement". Journal of Criminal Law. 71 (4): 308–17. doi:10.1350/jcla.2007.71.4.308.
^ Jump up to: a b c "On this day: May 4, 1860". The Times. 4 May 2007. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "A Schoolmaster Committed for Manslaughter". The Times. 4 May 1860. p. 5.
Jump up ^ "Commital of a schoolmaster for manslaughter". Reynolds's Newspaper. 6 May 1860. p. 508.
Jump up ^ "The Eastbourne Tragedy". Manchester Times. 1 September 1860. p. 5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Wilks, S (1 January 1865). "Clinical Notes on Chronic Hydrocephalus in the Adult". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 10 (52): 520–25. doi:10.1192/bjp.10.52.520.
Jump up ^ Ballantine, William (1883). Some experiences of a barrister's life. Richard Bently & Son. p. 329.
Jump up ^ R v Hopley, 1860, quoted in Parker-Jenkins, Marie (1999). Sparing the rod: schools, discipline and children's rights. Trentham Books. pp. 5–13. ISBN 1-85856-159-0.
Jump up ^ Quoted in Parker-Jenkins, Marie (1999). Sparing the rod: schools, discipline and children's rights. Trentham Books. pp. 5–13. ISBN 1-85856-159-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Another Extraordinary Divorce Case". Wellington Independent. 1 October 1864. p. 1.
^ Jump up to: a b Terasaki, Hiroaki. "Newspapers and Educational Journals on School Corporal Punishment in Nineteenth Century England" (PDF). Tokyo University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
Jump up ^ "140 years of chastisement". The Telegraph. 6 July 2004. Retrieved 14 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Harris, N; Pearce, P; Johnstone, S (1991). The Legal Context of Teaching. Longman. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-582-03956-8.
Categories: 1860 crimes1860 in the United KingdomCorporal punishmentsCrime in East SussexEastbourneHistory of education in EnglandHistory of SussexManslaughter in the United Kingdom19th century in SussexApril 1860 events
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Operation Iskra
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Operation Iskra
Part of the Eastern Front of World War II
Iskra 21-1-43.jpg
Development of Operation Iskra with the front line on the end of the January 12, 17 and 21, 1943.
Date	January 12–30, 1943.
Location	Southern shore of Lake Ladoga, near (Leningrad) present-day Saint Petersburg, Russia.
Result	Soviet strategic victory.
Territorial
changes	Siege of Leningrad eased.
Belligerents
Nazi Germany Germany	 Soviet Union
Commanders and leaders
Nazi Germany Georg Lindemann	Soviet Union Kirill Meretskov
Soviet Union Leonid Govorov
Units involved
18th Army:
6 divisions initially
Total: 26 divisions[1]	2nd Shock Army
8th Army
67th Army
Total: 20 divisions,
15 brigades[2]
Strength
700 artillery pieces
50 tanks
[2]	4600 artillery pieces
500 tanks
900 aircraft[2]
Casualties and losses
12,000 killed
32,570 wounded[3]	33,940 dead and missing
71,142 wounded and sick. In all 115,000[4]
[show] v t e
Eastern Front
[show] v t e
Leningrad and the Baltics 1941–44
Operation Iskra (Russian: ???????? «?????», operatsiya Iskra; English: Operation Spark) was a Soviet military operation during World War II, designed to break the German Wehrmacht's Siege of Leningrad. Planning for the operation began shortly after the failure of the Sinyavino Offensive. The German defeat in the Battle of Stalingrad in late 1942 had weakened the German front. By January 1943, Soviet forces were planning or conducting offensive operations across the entire German-Soviet front, especially in southern Russia, Iskra being the northern part of the wider Soviet 1942–1943 winter counter offensive.[5]

The operation was conducted by the Red Army's Leningrad and Volkhov Fronts, and the Baltic Fleet during January 12–30, 1943 with the aim of creating a land connection to Leningrad. The Soviet forces linked up on January 18, and by January 22, the front line was stabilised. The operation successfully opened a land corridor 8–10 kilometres (5.0–6.2 mi) wide to the city. A rail road was swiftly built through the corridor which allowed more supplies to reach the city than the Road of Life across the frozen surface of Lake Ladoga, significantly reducing the possibility of the capture of the city and a German–Finnish linkup.[6]

The success led to a much more ambitious offensive operation named Polyarnaya Zvezda (Polar Star) less than two weeks later. That operation had the aim of decisively defeating Army Group North, lifting the siege altogether, but it achieved only minimal progress.[7] Soviet forces made several other attempts in 1943 to renew their offensive and completely lift the siege, but made only modest gains in each one. The corridor remained in range of German artillery and the siege was only over on January 27, 1944.[8]

Contents  [hide] 
1	Background
2	Preparations
2.1	German preparations
2.2	Soviet preparations
3	Battle
3.1	Start of the battle: January 12
3.2	Soviet advance: January 13–17
3.3	Linkup and land corridor: January 18–21
3.4	Front line stabilises, railway construction: January 22–30
4	Aftermath
5	Notes
6	References
7	Further reading
Background[edit]
The Siege of Leningrad started in early autumn 1941. By September 8, 1941 German and Finnish forces had surrounded the city, cutting off all supply routes to Leningrad and its suburbs. However, the original drive on the city failed and the city was subjected to a siege. During 1942 several attempts were made to breach the blockade but all failed. The last such attempt was the Sinyavino Offensive. After the defeat of the Sinyavino Offensive, the front line returned to what it was before the offensive and again 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) separated Leonid Govorov's Leningrad Front in the city and Kirill Meretskov's Volkhov Front.[9]

Despite the failures of earlier operations, lifting the siege of Leningrad was a very high priority, so new offensive preparations began in November 1942.[10] In December, the operation plan was approved by the Stavka and received the codename "Iskra" (Spark). The operation was due to begin in January 1943.[11]

By January 1943, the situation looked very good for the Soviet side. The German defeat in the Battle of Stalingrad had weakened the German front. The Soviet forces were planning or conducting offensive operations across the entire front, especially in southwestern Russia. Amidst these conditions, Operation Iskra was to become the first of several offensive operations aimed at inflicting a decisive defeat on the German Army Group North.[5]

Preparations[edit]
The area south of Lake Ladoga is a heavily forested area with many wetlands (especially peat deposits) closer to the lake. In addition the forest shielded both sides from visual observation. Both of these factors greatly hindered the mobility of artillery and vehicles in the area, providing a considerable advantage to the defending forces. One of the key locations were the Sinyavino heights which were some 150 metres higher than the surrounding flat terrain, which were some of the few dry and clear areas, and in addition provided good observation. Since the front line had changed very little since the blockade was established, the German forces had built a dense defensive network of strong points, interconnected by trenches and protected by extensive obstacles and interlocking artillery and mortar fire.[12] The Neva River and marshes were partially frozen in winter which allowed infantry to cross it, but not heavy vehicles.[13]

German preparations[edit]

German field defences in January 1943
The Germans were well aware that breaking the blockade was very important for the Soviet side. However, due to the reverse at Stalingrad and the Soviet offensive at Velikiye Luki to the south of Leningrad, Army Group North was ordered to go on the defensive and was stripped of many troops. The 11th Army, which was to lead the assault on Leningrad in September 1942, and which had thwarted the last Soviet offensive, was transferred to Army Group Center in October. Nine other divisions were also reassigned to other sectors.[14]

At the start of the Soviet offensive, the German 18th Army, led by Georg Lindemann consisted of 26 divisions spread across a 450 kilometres (280 mi) wide front. The army was stretched very thin and as a result had no division-level reserves. Instead, each division had a tactical reserve of one or two battalions, and the army reserves consisted of portions of the 96th Infantry Division and the 5th Mountain Division. The 1st Air Fleet provided the air support for the army.[13]

Five divisions and part of another one were guarding the narrow corridor which separated the Soviet Leningrad and Volkhov Fronts. The corridor was only 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) wide and was called the "bottleneck". The German divisions were well fortified in this area, where the front line had been virtually unchanged since September 1941, and hoping to repel the Soviet offensive.[10]

Soviet preparations[edit]

Situation on front on January 11
The plan for Operation Iskra was approved in December. The orders from the Stavka were:

“	With the combined efforts of the Volkhov and Leningrad Fronts, defeat the enemy in the area of Lipka, Gaitolovo, Dubrovka, Shlisselburg, and thus penetrate the Leningrad blockade. Finish the operation by the end of January 1943.[15]	”
This meant recapturing the "bottleneck" and opening a 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) corridor to Leningrad. After that, the two fronts were to rest for 10 days and resume the offensive southward in further operations.[15]

The biggest difference from the earlier Sinyavino Offensive was the location of the main attack. In September 1942 the Soviet forces were attacking south of the town of Siniavino, which allowed them to potentially encircle several German divisions, but also left the army open to flanking attacks from the north, and it was this which ultimately caused the offensive to fail. In January 1943 the offensive was conducted north of Siniavino, closer to the Ladoga Lake shore, which removed the threat of flanking attacks and increased the probability of success, but forced the Soviets to abandon the idea of encircling most of the German forces in the "bottleneck".[15]

The offensive was to be conducted by Leningrad Front's 67th Army and Volkhov Front's 2nd Shock Army commanded by Major General M.P. Dukhanov and Lieutenant General V.Z. Romanovsky respectively. The 8th Army, commanded by Lieutenant General F.N. Starikov, was to conduct a limited offensive on the 2nd Shock Army's flank and defend elsewhere.[16] 13th and 14th Air Armies provided air support.

The two fronts spent December training and preparing for the offensive, and received significant reinforcements. These included not just replenishment and additional rifle divisions and brigades, but also significant additional artillery and engineer units, which were vital for breaching the heavy German defenses. Specialized winter units included three ski brigades and four aerosleigh battalions.[17] To ensure the Soviet forces had air superiority, which they had lacked in the previous offensive, the air strength in the area was increased to a total of over 800 planes, predominantly fighters. Large tank forces could not operate well in the swampy terrain, so the tank forces were used primarily as battalions reinforcing divisions or slightly larger brigades, which were to operate independently.[18]

Originally the operation was due to begin on January 1, but poor ice conditions on the Neva caused the offensive to be delayed until January 10–12.[17] A number of measures were taken to prevent the details of the operation being revealed to the Germans. Only a limited number of senior officers were involved in the planning, all redeployments took place in bad weather or at night and simulated attack preparations were made elsewhere to confuse the German side.[19]

On January 10, the Stavka sent Georgy Zhukov as its representative to coordinate the battle. The rifle divisions occupied their jumping-off positions on January 11, and first echelon tanks moved into their advanced positions early on January 12.[20]

Battle[edit]
Start of the battle: January 12[edit]

Soviet advance on January 12
The night before the start of the operations, the Soviet night bombers attacked the German divisional headquarters and artillery positions to disrupt the German command and control. The bombers also attacked German airfields and communication centres to disrupt the flow of reinforcements.[21] Operation Iskra began at 9:30 on January 12, when the two Soviet fronts began their artillery preparation, which lasted for 2 hours 20 minutes on the western side and 1 hour 45 minutes on the eastern side of the bottleneck. The Soviet attack started five minutes before the artillery preparation finished with a Katyusha barrage, to fully exploit its effects.[22]

The Leningrad Front forces achieved their greatest success between Shlisselburg and Gorodok 1. Here, the Soviet 136th and 268th Rifle Divisions with supporting tanks and artillery captured a bridgehead approximately 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) wide and 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) deep.[22] At 18:00 the sappers constructed bridges near Mar'ino to allow second echelon troops to advance. However, attacks further south, near Gorodok only resulted in the capture of the first line of German trenches. The attack further north at Shlisselburg failed. By evening, the Front command decided to exploit the formed bridgehead and troops attacking Shlisselburg across the Neva were redeployed there and started attacking it from the south.[23]

The Volkhov Front attack saw less success as the forces of the 2nd Shock Army managed to envelop but not destroy the German strong points at Lipka and Workers Settlement No. 8. The latter was an impressive defensive position with a garrison of 700 men and 16 bunkers. Heavy flanking fire from these strong points prevented any further advance, but the 2nd Shock Army penetrated the German defenses 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) between these points. Further south, between Workers Settlement No. 8 and Kruglaya Grove the advance was 1–2 kilometres (0.62–1.24 mi) deep, while even further south, the flanking attacks by the 8th Army only managed to capture the first line of German trenches.[23]

The German side reacted by deploying their reserves to the region throughout the night. One improvised battle group consisting of five battalions from the 96th Infantry Division, supported by artillery and four Tiger tanks moved to Gorodok No. 2 to reinforce the 170th Infantry Division to the west. Another similar battle group using battalions from the 96th Infantry Division was sent to Workers Settlement No. 1 to support the 227th Infantry Division.[24]

Soviet advance: January 13–17[edit]

Soviet advance by January 18
The next five days saw very heavy fighting as the Soviets slowly advanced through heavy German defences and repelled German counterattacks. On January 13, bad weather prevented the Soviet side from employing their air force. That day they gained almost no ground and incurred heavy losses.[25] The German side, after their counterattacks had failed to throw back the Soviet troops, started further reinforcing the area by assembling battle groups using portions of divisions from the quiet parts of the front. These included battle groups from the 1st Infantry Division, the 61st Infantry Division, the 5th Mountain Division and the SS Police Division.[26]

On January 14 the weather improved enough to allow air support again and the Soviet advance resumed, albeit at a slow pace. To speed up the encirclement of the strong point at Lipka, the Soviet side used the 12th Ski Brigade which crossed the ice of the Ladoga Lake and attacked the German rear lines. By the end of the day the German forces in the Lipka and Shlisselburg areas were almost completely cut off from the rest of the German forces.[27]

Throughout January 15–17 the Soviet fronts fought towards each other, capturing the strong points at Workers Settlements Nos. 3, 4, 7, 8, and most of Shlisselburg. By the end of January 17 they were only 1.5–2 kilometres (0.93–1.24 mi) apart between Workers Settlements Nos. 1 and 5.[28] On January 15, Govorov was promoted to colonel general.[29]

Linkup and land corridor: January 18–21[edit]

Soviet advance by January 22
On January 18, at 9:30 the lead elements from the 67th Army's 123rd Rifle Division and 2nd Shock Army's 372nd Rifle Division linked up near Workers Settlement No. 1, thus technically breaking the blockade and marking an important date in the Siege of Leningrad. German forces north of the settlement were cut off. Group Huhner, made up of two battle groups under the Lieutenant General Huhner, commander of the 61st Infantry Division, was supposed to hold the corridor between Workers Settlements Nos. 1 and 5 but was no longer able to do it. Later that day the Soviet forces captured Workers Settlement No. 5 after repelling a strong German counterattack. The lead elements from the 67th Army's 136th Rifle Division and 2nd Shock Army's 18th Rifle Division linked up to the north of the settlement at 11:45.[30] Group Huhner became cut off too and was ordered to break out through the forested area toward Siniavino before the main Soviet forces arrived and made a breakout impossible. Group Huhner abandoned its artillery and heavy equipment[27] and ran "the gauntlet of fire" before reaching Siniavino on January 19–20. The breakout was costly for both sides. By early afternoon, the Soviet forces cleared Shlisselburg and Lipka from German forces and started liquidating the forces remaining in the forests south of Lake Ladoga.[31]

During January 19–21 the Soviet forces eliminated the encircled German forces and tried to expand their offensive southward towards Siniavino. However, the 18th Army significantly reinforced its positions there with the SS Police, 21st Infantry, and soon after the 11th Infantry and 28th Mountain Divisions. The Soviet forces captured Workers Settlement No. 6 but were unable to advance any further.[7]

Front line stabilises, railway construction: January 22–30[edit]
There were no changes in the front line after January 21 as a result of Operation Iskra. The Soviet forces were unable to advance any further, and instead started fortifying the area to thwart any German attempt at re-establishing the blockade. On January 22, work started on the rail line linking Leningrad to the rest of the country through the captured corridor. The plan from the GKO written on January 18, ordered the construction to be finished in 20 days. The work was completed ahead of schedule and trains began delivering supplies on February 6, 1943. The operation officially ended on January 30.[32]

Aftermath[edit]
Operation Iskra was a strategic victory for the Soviet forces. From a military perspective, the operation eliminated the possibility of the capture of the city and a German–Finnish link up, as the Leningrad Front was now very well supplied, reinforced and able to co-operate more closely with the Volkhov Front. For the civilian population, the operation meant that more food was able to reach the city, as well as improved conditions and the possibility of evacuating more civilians from the city.[7] Breaking the blockade also had a significant strategic effect, although it was overshadowed by the surrender of the German 6th Army at Stalingrad only a few days later. Notably, the first Tiger tank captured by the Soviets was taken during this battle. It was undamaged and evacuated by the Soviet forces for evaluation.[33]

Also the victory led to promotions for Govorov, who was promoted to colonel-general on January 15, and Zhukov, who was promoted to marshal of the Soviet Union on January 18. In addition Govorov and Meretskov were awarded the Order of Suvorov 1st Class on January 28. The 136th and 327th Rifle Divisions were awarded the designation of 63rd and 64th Guards Rifle Divisions, while the 61st Tank Brigade was designated the 30th Guards Tank Brigade.[3]

For the German side, the battle left the 18th Army very stretched and exhausted. Lacking sufficient reinforcements, the command of Army Group North made the decision to shorten the front line by evacuating the Demyansk Pocket salient. The salient had been held throughout 1942, despite being encircled for a few months, as it was an important strategic bridgehead. Together with the Rzhev salient (which was also evacuated in spring 1943), it could potentially be used to encircle a large number of Soviet forces. However, in the situation that had developed, retaining it was no longer possible.[34]

Nevertheless, despite these conditions, the Stavka knew that "Operation Iskra" was incomplete, as the corridor it had opened was narrow and was still in range of the German artillery, and the important heights and strong point at Sinyavino were still under German control. This led Zhukov to plan a much more ambitious offensive operation named Polyarnaya Zvezda (Polar Star). The operation had the aim of decisively defeating Army Group North, but faltered early on.[7] The Soviet forces carried several other offensives in the area in 1943, slowly expanding the corridor, making other small gains before finally capturing Siniavino in September.[35] However, the city was still subjected to at least a partial siege as well as air and artillery bombardment until January 1944, when the Leningrad-Novgorod Offensive broke through the German lines, lifting the siege completely.[36]

Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Glantz, pp. 262–263
^ Jump up to: a b c Isayev, pp. 450–451
^ Jump up to: a b Glantz p. 285
Jump up ^ http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/1939-1945/KRIWOSHEEW/poteri.txt
^ Jump up to: a b Glantz p. 259
Jump up ^ Glantz pp. 284–285
^ Jump up to: a b c d Glantz p. 284
Jump up ^ Glantz p. 366
Jump up ^ Isayev p. 441
^ Jump up to: a b Glantz p. 264
Jump up ^ Glantz p. 265
Jump up ^ Glantz pp.216–217
^ Jump up to: a b Glantz p. 263
Jump up ^ Glantz p. 262
^ Jump up to: a b c Isayev p. 444
Jump up ^ Glantz p. 268
^ Jump up to: a b Glantz p. 266
Jump up ^ Glantz pp. 269–270
Jump up ^ Glantz p. 272
Jump up ^ Glantz p. 273
Jump up ^ Isayev p.454
^ Jump up to: a b Glantz p.274
^ Jump up to: a b Isayev p.455
Jump up ^ Glantz p.277
Jump up ^ Isayev pp.456–457
Jump up ^ Glantz p.280
^ Jump up to: a b Isayev p.457
Jump up ^ Glantz pp.281–282
Jump up ^ Kiselev p. 140
Jump up ^ Glantz p.282
Jump up ^ Glantz p.283
Jump up ^ Isayev p.461
Jump up ^ Panzerkampfwagen VI Tiger Ausf. E Sd. Kfz. 181 achtungpanzer.com
Jump up ^ Isayev p. 467
Jump up ^ Glantz p. 323
Jump up ^ Glantz p.303
References[edit]
Glantz, David M. (2002). The Battle for Leningrad 1941–1944. Kansas University Press. ISBN 0-7006-1208-4.
????? (Isayev), ??????? ?????????? (2006). ????? ??????????? ??? ?? ????. ??????? ???, ??????? ?? ?? ?????. (in Russian). ?. ????, ?????. ISBN 5-699-11949-3.
??????? (Kiselev), ?. ?. (1971). ?????????? ? ????????????? ??????? ?????????????. (in Russian). ??????? ???????.
Further reading[edit]
Glantz, David M. (2005). Leningrad: City Under Siege 1941–1944. Grange Books. ISBN 1-84013-798-3.
Haupt, Werner (1997). Army Group North. The Wehrmacht in Russia 1941–1945. Schiffer Publishing, Atglen, Pennsylvania. ISBN 0-7643-0182-9.
Krivosheev, Grigoriy (2001). "?????? ? ???? ? ?????? XX ????: ?????? ??????????? ???: ?????????????? ????????????" [Russia and the USSR in the wars of the 20th century: Loss of armed forces: Statistical study] (in Russian). Google translation
Meretskov, Kirill (1971). ?? ?????? ?????? (in Russian) Serving the People. Imported Publications, Incorporated, (English Translation). ISBN 0-8285-0494-6.
??????????? (Feyuninsky), ?. ? (1964). ???????? ?? ??????? (in Russian). ??????? ???-?? ?? ????.
Coordinates: 59.9000°N 31.0670°E

Categories: Conflicts in 19431943 in the Soviet UnionBattles and operations of the Soviet–German WarMilitary operations of World War II involving GermanyStrategic operations of the Red Army in World War IIJanuary 1943 events
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Elena Arizmendi Mejia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This name uses Spanish naming customs: the first or paternal family name is Arizmendi and the second or maternal family name is Mejia.
Elena Arizmendi Mejia
Elena Arizmendi ca 1916.PNG
Born	18 January 1884
Mexico City, Mexico
Died	1949 (aged 64–65)
Mexico City, Mexico
Nationality	Mexican
Occupation	journalist
Years active	1920–1938
Known for	established the Neutral White Cross
Elena Arizmendi Mejía (18 January 1884 – 1949) was a Mexican feminist who established the Neutral White Cross organization during the Mexican Revolution. She was a part of the first wave of Mexican feminism and established the "Mujeres de la raza" (Women of the [Hispanic] Race) and the International League of Iberian and Latin American Women in cooperation with G. Sofía Villa de Buentello.

Contents  [hide] 
1	Biography
2	Autobiography
3	Further reading
4	References
Biography[edit]
Elena Arizmendi Mejía was born 18 January 1884 in Mexico City to Jesús Arizmendi and Isabel Mejía,[1] a family of privilege. She was the granddaughter of Ignacio Mejía (es) who served as Secretary of War, and was a Division General under the regime of President Benito Juárez.[2] Her great-grandfather was Lieutenant Colonel Manuel Cristóbal Mejía, who fought in the Mexican War of Independence in the army of Agustín de Iturbide. Arizmendi spent some of her early years with her grandfather in Oaxaca and then returned to Mexico City at about the age of 8. She was schooled in Mexico City, possibly at San Ignacio de Loyola, but when her mother died in 1898, Arizmendi took control of her five brothers and the household. When her he father remarried in 1900, Arizmendi hastily entered marriage with Francisco Carreto, but the union quickly crumbled and she decided to study nursing.[1]

Her family had close ties with Francisco I. Madero and the school in which Arizmendi was enrolled was next door to Madero's Texas retreat. In 1910, she was studying at the School of Nursing of the Santa Rosa Hospital (now the School of Nursing at the University of the Incarnate Word) in San Antonio, Texas when the war broke out. On 17 April 1911, a few weeks prior to her graduation, Arizmendi returned via train to Mexico City to help with wounded combatants,[2] as the Mexican Red Cross refused to provide aid to insurgents.[3] Arizmendi arranged a personal meeting with the head of the Red Cross, who reiterated the refusal to support revolutionaries. Determined to help her countrymen, Arizmendi founded an organization to help and with her brother Carlos rallied medical students and nurses to organize the Cruz Blanca Neutral (Neutral White Cross).[2]


Elena Arizmendi and volunteers of the Neutral White Cross, 1911
They formed an association under the guidelines of the Geneva Conventions and she became the fundraiser, enlisting the help of celebrities like María Conesa, Virginia Fábregas, and Leopoldo Beristáin. After numerous fundraisers, they collected sufficient funds for a field hospital and on 11 May 1911, set off for Ciudad Juárez. Arizmendi and Carlos, formed the first brigade with Dr. Ignacio Barrios and Dr. Antonio Márquez and nurses María Avon, Juana Flores Gallardo, Atilana García, Elena de Lange, and Tomasa Villareal. The second brigade, led by Dr. Francisco, left the following day and on the 14th a third brigade, headed by Dr. Lorenzo and ten nurses including Innocenta Díaz, Concepción Ibáñez, Jovita Muñiz, Concepción Sánchez, María Sánchez, Basilia Vélez, María Vélez and Antonia Zorilla. Arriving in Juárez, they found devastation and again Arizmendi had to rally for funds. By the end of 1911, the Neutral White Cross had established 25 brigades across Mexico. Arzimendi was elected as the first woman partner of the Sociedad Mexicana de Geografía y Estadística, but she rejected the honor. She did accept a gold medal presented to her for dedication with helping the wounded by the Gran Liga Obrera (Grand Worker League).[2]

Arizmundi was both revered for her philanthropy[2] and disliked for her leadership, at a time when women were expected to be docile and submissive. There were attacks to her leadership of the White Cross, such as when she had a photograph taken as a joke with the revolutionary crossed cartridge belts of male soldiers and soldaderas and was accused of violating the neutrality of the health organization.[4]

During the revolutionary era, she had a long-term affair with José Vasconcelos, who was married with two children; she has been described as "the first of many lovers in his life but certainly his most intense and madly beloved liaison."[5] Arizmundi fled Mexico in 1915 for the United States, briefly taking refuge in a convent in Victoria, Texas to hide from the public scandal of her relationship with Vasconcelos. She soon made her way to New York City, where the relationship ended.[6] According to one scholar, Arizmendi accompanied Vasconcelos to Lima, Peru and she broke off the relationship as he prepared to return to Mexico.[7] He wrote about her in his autobiography, La Tormenta, giving her the pseudonym "Adriana." According to historian Enrique Krauze, Vasconcelos's description of the relationship "is the most famous depiction of 'mad love' in Mexican literature."[8] When Arizmendi was in New York, Vasconcelos attempted an unsuccessful reconciliation with her.[9]

Surrounded by feminists in New York, she recognized the Anglo-oriented perspective of European and US feminists. Wishing to give a voice to Latina women, she founded a feminist magazine, Feminismo Internacional (International Feminist) and began publishing articles reflecting Hispanic versions of feminism.[10] She also co-founded with G. Sofía Villa de Buentello a cooperative union "Mujeres de la raza" (Women of the [Hispanic] Race) in 1923 with aims of uniting[11] Latina women in the struggle for rights. At the time, Latin America was seen as the next "staging ground", as suffrage had been gained in Europe and the US. Arizmendi, after her attendance at the 1922 Pan-American Conference of Women, understood Europeans and Americans did not grasp the cultural realities of Hispanic women. Villa and Arizmendi both saw matrimony and motherhood, an integral part of Latina identity, as making the experience of women "complete".[6][12] Arizmendi also saw the anti-clerical movement of the post-Revolutionary governments as an attack on a central part of her Mexican identity.[6]

Arizmendi and Villa planned a conference for the Mujeres de la raza funded by the International League of Iberian and Latin American Women. Arizmendi used her press contracts and secured coverage in The New York Times to promote the event.[6] On 2 March 1924, an extensive article about the feminist movement in Mexico entitled "New Women of Mexico Striving for Equality" carried an interview with Villa de Buentello giving an overview of their goals.[13] The meeting occurred in July, 1925 in Mexico City with Villa as President of the conference. Arizmendi served as Secretary General, but did not attend due to a difference of opinion with Villa.[14]

In 1927, Arizmendi published an autobiography with the purpose of airing her side of the affair and silencing rumors about her public life. Since Vasconcelos had published two works, Ulises Criollo and La Tormenta vilifying Arizmendi, though as a fictionalized character, Arizmendi's autobiography is a reflection upon the "double standard" women encountered.[6]

For the 25th commemoration of the organization of the White Cross in 1936 and partly because President Lázaro Cárdenas supported suffrage, Arizmendi returned briefly to Mexico. She returned to New York, but moved permanently back to Mexico City in 1938, where she died in 1949.[6]

Autobiography[edit]
Vida incompleta; ligeros apuntes sobre mujeres en la vida real M.D. Danon and Company, New York (1927) (In Spanish)

Further reading[edit]
Cano, Gabriela. Se llamaba Elena Arizmendi. Mexico City: Tusquets 2010.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Collado Soto, Juan Rodolfo (April 2012). "Historia de la Enfermería: Se Llamaba Elena Arizmendi" (PDF). Desarrollo Cientif Enferm (in Spanish). 20 (3): 102–106. Retrieved 30 March 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Nance, Douglas C (2010). "Enfermeras del Hospital General de México a la Revolución" (PDF). Rev Enferm Inst Mex Seguro (in Spanish). 18 (2): 111–115. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Factional Fight May Be Started". The Newark Advocate (Vol. 43). Newark, Ohio. 23 May 1911. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Mraz, John (2012). Photographing the Mexican Revolution: Commitments, Testimonies, Icons (1st ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 68–70. ISBN 978-0-292-73580-4.
Jump up ^ Enrique Krauze, Redeemers: Ideas and Power in Latin America, New York: Harper Collins 2011, p. 55.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Cano, Gabriela (January–June 2011). "Elena Arizmendi, una habitación propia en Nueva York, 1916–1938" (PDF). Arenal (in Spanish). 18 (1): 85–114. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Krauze, Redeemer, p. 57.
Jump up ^ Krauze, Redeemers, p. 57.
Jump up ^ Krauze, Redeemers, p. 61.
Jump up ^ Beltrán, Rosa Esther (8 October 2010). "Una biografía" (in Spanish). Vanguardia. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, Stephanie; Schell, Patience A. (2006). The women's revolution in Mexico, 1910–1953. Lanham [Md.]: Rowman & Littlefield Pub. pp. 55–59. ISBN 978-0-7425-3730-9.
Jump up ^ Miller, Francesca (1991). Latin American Women and the Search for Social Justice. Hanover: University Press of New England. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-874-51558-9.
Jump up ^ Leland, Maria (May 2010). "Separate Spheres: Soldaderas and Feminists in Revolutionary Mexico" (PDF). Honors Thesis. Ohio State University. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Ramos Escondan, Carmen (2002). "Desafiando el Orden Legal y las Limitaciones en las Conductas de Genero en Mexico. la Critica de Sofia Villa de Buentello a la Legislacion Familiar Mexicana 1917–1927" (PDF). Segundo Epoca (in Spanish). VII: 79–102. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
Authority control	
WorldCat Identities VIAF: 146998453 LCCN: no2010130525 GND: 1018612467
Categories: People of the Mexican RevolutionMexican revolutionariesMexican women's rights activistsMexican women writersMexican feminist writersWriters from Mexico CityWomen autobiographers20th-century Mexican writers1884 births1949 deaths20th-century Mexican women writers20th-century writersMexican autobiographers
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Patrick Zhuwao
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Patrick Zhuwao
Minister of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare of Zimbabwe
In office
9 October 2017 – 27 November 2017
President	Robert Mugabe
Emmerson Mnangagwa
Preceded by	Prisca Mupfumira
Succeeded by	Clever Nyathi
Minister of Youth Development, Indigenisation and Economic Empowerment of Zimbabwe
In office
11 September 2015 – 9 October 2017
President	Robert Mugabe
Deputy	Mathias Tongofa
Preceded by	Christopher Mushohwe
Succeeded by	Chiratidzo Mabuwa
Member of the House of Assembly of Zimbabwe for Zvimba East
In office
2008–2013
Succeeded by	Francis Mukwangwariwa
Deputy Minister of Science and Technology of Zimbabwe
In office
2008–2012
President	Robert Mugabe
Deputy Minister of Youth Development, Indigenisation and Economic Empowerment of Zimbabwe
In office
2007–2008
President	Robert Mugabe
Personal details
Born	23 May 1967 (age 50)
Rhodesia
Political party	ZANU-PF (expelled in 2017)
Independent (2017–)
Spouse(s)	Beauty Zhuwao
Relations	Innocent Mugabe (brother)
Leo Mugabe (brother)
Robert Mugabe (uncle)
Parents	Sabina Mugabe (mother)
Residence	South Africa
Alma mater	University of Zimbabwe
Patrick Zhuwao (born 23 May 1967) is a Zimbabwean politician, businessman, and farmer. He served as Minister of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare of Zimbabwe between October and November 2017. He was expelled from the ZANU–PF party during the 2017 Zimbabwean coup d'état.

Zhuwao was born in 1967 to Sabina Mugabe and a Mozambican father. His uncle is Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe. He studied at the University of Zimbabwe, where he earned two bachelor's degrees and four master's degrees. Zhuwao went on to become a tobacco farmer and businessman, with interests in several parastatals. He also founded a thinktank, the Zhuwao Institute, which focuses on economic development and is aligned with the policies of President Mugabe.

Zhuwao entered politics in 2007 when President Mugabe appointed him Deputy Minister of Youth. A year later, he was elected to the House of Assembly for the Zvimba East constituency and was appointed Deputy Minister of Science and Technology, a position he held until 2012. In 2013, he was defeated in the ZANU–PF primaries for reelection to Parliament. In 2015, he was named Minister of Youth Development, Indigenisation and Economic Empowerment. In October 2017, he was named Minister of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare. In November 2017, he was expelled from ZANU–PF because of his association with First Lady Grace Mugabe and the Generation 40 faction. He is now living in South Africa.

Contents  [hide] 
1	Early life and education
2	Business career
3	Political career
3.1	2017 coup d'état and aftermath
4	Personal life
5	References
Early life and education[edit]
Zhuwao was born on 23 May 1967 to Sabina Mugabe and a Mozambican father.[1][2] He is the brother of Innocent Mugabe, the former head of the Central Intelligence Organisation,[3] and Leo Mugabe, a businessman and politician.[1] Zhuwao is the only son of Sabina Mugabe who did not use her maiden name as his surname.[3]

He studied at the University of Zimbabwe, where he earned two bachelor's degrees and four master's degrees.[4][5][6] He holds a Bachelor of Science in Computer Systems Engineering, a Bachelor of Science in Economics, a Master of Business Administration in Information Technology Management, a Master of Management, a Master of Public and Development Management, and a Master of Science in Economics.[4] He earned his most recent degree, the MS in Economics, in September 2014.[4]

Business career[edit]
Zhuwao owns Norton Tobacco Farm in Norton.[7] He was said to have been involved in a salary dispute at Norton Farm when he allegedly went three months without paying the workers.[6] Zhuwao confirmed the incident but said that because he was in the tobacco industry, he could only pay employees once the crop had been sold.[6]

Zhuwao also has business interests in Telecel Zimbabwe, a telecommunication firm that is Zimbabwe's second largest mobile phone operator, through the Empowerment Corporation of Zimbabwe, of which he is a stakeholder.[6][8] In August 2013, he played a pivotal role in restoring Telecel Zimbabwe's license.[8] Two months earlier, the Postal and Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of Zimbabwe did not renew the company's expired license due to its failure to comply with Zimbabwe's indigenisation policy, which "requires that all foreign firms in Zimbabwe give up the majority of their ownership to black Zimbabweans".[8] To help the firm renew its license, Zhuwao stepped in to reach a deal in which Telecel Zimbabwe made plans to comply with the indigenisation policy.[8] Reportedly, Zhuwao himself planned to make himself the company's main shareholder, but reportedly the government did not agree to allow this.[8] Nevertheless, the government renewed the firm's license, though Zhuwao said that his connection to President Mugabe was not a factor.[8]

In 2014, he was named chairman of the newly-created board of directors of the parastatal Zimbabwe Power Company by Minister of Energy and Power Development Dzikamai Mavhaire.[9]

In 2014, Zhuwao started his own think tank, the Zhuwao Institute.[5] The Harare-based institute focuses on research and economic development.[10] The think tank was described by Ken Mufuka writing in The Financial Gazette as having "jumped on the governmental bandwagon" for its association with the policies of Robert Mugabe.[5]

Political career[edit]
Zhuwao entered politics in July 2007 when President Robert Mugabe appointed him Deputy Minister of Youth.[3] His appointment was criticized by some as an example of nepotism, because Zhuwao is Mugabe's nephew.[3] In 2008, Zhuwao was elected to the Zimbabwe House of Assembly for the Zvimba East constituency, as a member of ZANU–PF.[1][6] Bybit Lydia Tsomondo had dropped out of the race, clearing the way for him to run. From 2008 to 2012, he served as Deputy Minister of Science and Technology.[2][7] In 2010, Zhuwao became a member of the Politburo of ZANU–PF and the youth director of the party.[6]

In the 2013 parliamentary elections, Zhuwao was defeated in the Zvimba East ZANU–PF primaries by Francis Mukwangwariwa, a farmer and former Central Intelligence Organisation operative.[1][6][11]

In October 2014, Zhuwao became involved in the heated ZANU–PF succession infighting between Vice President Joice Mujuru and then-Minister of Justice Emmerson Mnangagwa.[12] In an article published in state media, Zhuwao claimed that during a "coup" attempt at the residence of President Mugabe a week earlier, his wife Beauty Zhuwao slapped ZANU–PF Mashonaland West provincial chairman Temba Mliswa after a tense verbal exhange.[12][13] She reportedly slapped Mliswa, who did not retaliate, once, before others present intervened.[12][13] Reports of the incident soon went viral on the internet.[12] At a meeting with top government officials days later, Mugabe reportedly denied that a coup attempt occurred, expressed disapproval of the incident, and apologized to Mliswa on Beauty Zhuwao's behalf.[12] Mugabe also reportedly questioned Media Minister Jonathan Moyo why Mliswa was being portrayed in state media as the aggressor when in reality, he was the victim of the assault.[12]

In December 2014, South African businessman Mutumwa Mawere threatened Zhuwao with legal action over "defamatory statements" Zhuwao wrote about him in a newspaper article.[14] In the op-ed, published in The Sunday Mail, Zhuwao described Mawere as "ideologically bankrupt, devoid of ethics, morality and decency".[14]

On 11 September 2015, Zhuwao was appointed Minister of Youth Development, Indigenisation and Economic Empowerment by President Mugabe.[15] He succeeded Christopher Mushohwe, who went on to become Minister of Information.[15]

On 21 July 2016, Zhuwao was ordered out of the Parliament building after he failed to respond to questioning during a Portfolio Committee session.[16][17] Zhuwao had been called before the committee to answer questions about an allegedly corrupt deal he had brokered when he hired a private consultancy firm, whose owner Zhuwao had a personal relationship with, to spearhead Zimbabwe's National Economic Empowerment Strategy.[16][17] At his questioning session before the committee on 21 July, Zhuwao engaged in a heated exchange with committee chair Justice Mayor Wadyajena. Other Members of Parliament accused Zhuwao of being under of the influence of drugs as he would occasionally burst out in "hysterical" laughter and declined to answer questions, only repeating the statement, "My name is Patrick Zhuwao, and can you allow me to respond in a manner that Patrick Zhuwao responds?"[16][17] Chairman Wadyajena told Zhuwao to excuse himself if he was not ready to answer the questions. After a lengthy exchange, the committee asked Zhuwao to leave the chamber and return when he was "sober and when he understood the questions and issues involved."[17] Some lawmakers said they were surprised by his conduct, noting that in their previous interactions with him he had always been articulate.[16][17]

On 9 October 2017, Zhuwao was appointed Minister of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare of Zimbabwe.[18] He announced on 10 November that government employees would be receiving bonuses.[19]

2017 coup d'état and aftermath[edit]
On 11 November 2017, it was often incorrectly reported that Zhuwao was taken into custody by the Zimbabwean military in relation to the 2017 coup d'état.[18] The reports that he was arrested were false; Zhuwao was in fact returning from a trip to South Africa, but turned around after hearing about the coup.[20][21][22]

On 19 November 2017, Zhuwao was expelled from ZANU–PF by the party's central committee. Other prominent G40 politicians, including Grace Mugabe, Saviour Kasukuwere, Jonathan Moyo, Ignatius Chombo, Walter Mzembi, Shadreck Mashayamombe, Makhosini Hlongwane, Innocent Hamandishe, Samuel Undenge, and Sarah Mahoka were also expelled from the party.[21][23] Even after fleeing the country, Zhuwao continued to be vocal in his defense of President Robert Mugabe, calling Mugabe's critics "dumb"[24] and saying that the president was "willing to die for what is correct."[25] ZANU–PF spokesman Nick Mangwana? responded by saying that Zhuwao should stop making these remarks, calling them "inflammatory".[26]

On 27 November 2017, Mugabe's successor Emmerson Mnangagwa dissolved the Zimbabwean cabinet, allowing only Patrick Chinamasa and Simbarashe Mumbengegwi to remain as acting ministers of Finance and Foreign Affairs, respectively, until a new cabinet would be installed.[27] In a December 2017 phone interview with The Standard, Zhuwao reported that during the coup, his farm was looted and his workers were beaten.[21][22] He said that he was proud to have served in Mugabe's government, but that he was quitting politics and remaining in South Africa for the time being out of safety concerns.[21][22] He said, "People can say I ran away—yes I did. It's better than to wait to be killed."[21][22]

Personal life[edit]
Zhuwao is married to Beauty Lily Zhuwao.[2] His son, Jason Zhuwao, is also active in ZANU–PF politics and was reported to be planning to run for Parliament in the Harare Central constituency against MDC–T leader Murisi Zvidzai.[28]

References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "About Patrick Zhuwawo - Pindula, Local Knowledge". www.pindula.co.zw. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Individuals and entities from Zimbabwe on US sanctions list - DOCUMENTS | Politicsweb". www.politicsweb.co.za. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Nepotism at the top". The Zimbabwean. 2007-07-19. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c Muzulu, Paidamoyo (2014-09-14). "Zhuwao wants to be 'govt advisor'". The Standard. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c Mufuka, Ken (2015-02-15). "Zhuwao Brief: The next generation". The Financial Gazette. Retrieved 2017-11-22.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Five things you probably did not know about Patrick Zhuwao". Pindula News. 2017-05-23. Retrieved 2017-11-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Patrick Zhuwao | Who's Who SA". whoswho.co.za. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f van Zyl, Gareth (2013-08-19). "Telecel Zimbabwe 'rescued' by Mugabe nephew - ITWeb Africa". itWeb Africa. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
Jump up ^ "Mavhaire names 10 energy sector boards". The Chronicle. 2014-06-13. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
Jump up ^ Machivenyika, Farirai (2014-09-03). "Name, shame traitors: Zhuwao | The Herald". The Herald. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
Jump up ^ "CIO spy confronts Mugabe nephew". NewsDay. 2012-01-05. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Kwaramba, Fungi (2014-10-05). "Mugabe nephew causing him headaches". DailyNews Live. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
^ Jump up to: a b "Mugabe nephew's wife slaps Mliswa". NewsDay Zimbabwe. 2014-09-30. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
^ Jump up to: a b Mawere, Mutumwa (2014-12-01). "Mutumwa Mawere threatens Mugabe's nephew". Bulawayo24 News. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "Zimbabwe's Mugabe appoints nephew empowerment minister". Reuters. 2015-09-11. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Dewa, Tatenda (2016-07-22). "Mugabe's nephew Zhuwao 'high on drugs' in parliament, kicked out". Nehanda Radio. Retrieved 2017-11-22.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Zhuwao ordered out of Parly". The Herald. 2016-07-22. Retrieved 2017-11-22.
^ Jump up to: a b "LATEST: Mugabe's nephew Zhuwao 'arrested & detained' by army". iHarare. 2017-11-14. Retrieved 2017-11-24.
Jump up ^ "Zhuwao : Civil Servants To Get Bonuses". NewsdzeZimbabwe. 2017-11-11. Retrieved 2017-11-24.
Jump up ^ "Zimbabweans in SA hunt down Mugabe's nephew". Bulawayo24 News. 2017-11-20. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Mugabe nephew: 'I ran away... It was better than waiting to be killed'". News24. 2017-12-04. Retrieved 2018-01-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Manayiti, Obey (2017-12-03). "Mugabe's nephew quits politics". The Standard. Retrieved 2018-01-03.
Jump up ^ Chidza, Richard (2017-11-20). "Zanu PF axe falls on Grace, G40 kingpins - NewsDay Zimbabwe". NewsDay Zimbabwe. Retrieved 2017-11-23.
Jump up ^ "Zhuwao singing for his supper from Uncle Bob". NewsDay Zimbabwe. 2017-11-21. Retrieved 2017-11-24.
Jump up ^ Pleasance, Chris (2017-11-19). "Mugabe's impeachment process begins". Mail Online. Retrieved 2017-11-24.
Jump up ^ Jakes, Stephen (2017-11-17). "Mugabe's nephew Zhuwao warned". Bulawayo24 News. Retrieved 2017-11-25.
Jump up ^ "Mnangagwa dissolves cabinet, Chinamasa appointed Acting Finance Minister". The Zimbabwe Mail. 27 November 2017. Retrieved 2017-11-28.
Jump up ^ "Patrick Zhuwao son eyes Harare Central seat". www.newzimbabwe.com. 2017-09-28. Retrieved 2017-11-24.
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Federal Art Project
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Eagle and palette design regarded as the logo of the Federal Art Project
The Federal Art Project (1935–43) was a New Deal program to fund the visual arts in the United States. Under national director Holger Cahill, it was one of five Federal Project Number One projects sponsored by the Works Progress Administration, and the largest of the New Deal art projects. It was created not as a cultural activity but as a relief measure to employ artists and artisans to create murals, easel paintings, sculpture, graphic art, posters, photography, theatre scenic design, and arts and crafts. The WPA Federal Art Project established more than 100 community art centers throughout the country, researched and documented American design, commissioned a significant body of public art without restriction to content or subject matter, and sustained some 10,000 artists and craft workers during the Great Depression.

Contents  [hide] 
1	Background
2	Notable artists
3	Community Art Center program
4	Index of American Design
5	WPA Art Recovery Project
6	See also
7	References
8	Further reading
9	External links
Background[edit]

Poster summarizing Federal Art Project employment and activities (November 1, 1936)

The Workers (c. 1935), a wall hanging created by Florence Kawa for the Milwaukee Handicraft Project, was presented to Eleanor Roosevelt[1]:164
The Federal Art Project was the visual arts arm of the Great Depression-era Works Progress Administration, a Federal One program. Funded under the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935, it operated from August 29, 1935, until June 30, 1943. It was created as a relief measure to employ artists and artisans to create murals, easel paintings, sculpture, graphic art, posters, photography, Index of American Design documentation, museum and theatre scenic design, and arts and crafts. The Federal Art Project operated community art centers throughout the country where craft workers and artists worked, exhibited and educated others.[2] The project created more than 200,000 separate works, some of them remaining among the most significant pieces of public art in the country.[3]

The Federal Art Project's primary goals were to employ out-of-work artists and to provide art for non-federal municipal buildings and public spaces. Artists were paid $23.60 a week; tax-supported institutions such as schools, hospitals and public buildings paid only for materials.[4] The work was divided into art production, art instruction and art research. The primary output of the art-research group was the Index of American Design, a mammoth and comprehensive study of American material culture.

As many as 10,000 artists were commissioned to produce work for the WPA Federal Art Project,[5] the largest of the New Deal art projects. Three comparable but distinctly separate New Deal art projects were administered by the United States Department of the Treasury: the Public Works of Art Project (1933–34), the Section of Painting and Sculpture (1934–43) and the Treasury Relief Art Project (1935–38).[6]

The WPA program made no distinction between representational and nonrepresentational art. Abstraction had not yet gained favor in the 1930s and 1940s and, thus, was virtually unsalable. As a result, the Federal Art Project supported such iconic artists as Jackson Pollock before their work could earn them income.[7]

One particular success was the Milwaukee Handicraft Project, which started in 1935 as an experiment that employed 900 people who were classified as unemployable due to their age or disability.[1]:164 The project came to employ approximately 5,000 unskilled workers, many of them women and the long-term unemployed. Historian John Gurda observed that the city's unemployment hovered at 40 percent in 1933. "In that year," he said, "53 percent of Milwaukee's property taxes went unpaid because people just could not afford to make the tax payments."[8] Workers were taught bookbinding, block printing and design, which they used to create handmade art books and children's books. They produced toys, dolls,[9] theatre costumes, quilts,[8] rugs, draperies, wall hangings and furniture that were purchased by schools, hospitals[1]:164 and municipal organizations[10] for the cost of materials only.[11] In 2014, when the Museum of Wisconsin Art mounted an exhibition of items created by the Milwaukee Handicraft Project, furniture was found that was still being used at the Milwaukee Public Library.[8]

Holger Cahill was national director of the Federal Art Project. Other administrators included Audrey McMahon, director of the New York Region (New York, New Jersey, and Philadelphia); Clement B. Haupers, director for Minnesota;[12] and Robert Bruce Inverarity, director for Washington state.

Notable artists[edit]
Main article: List of Federal Art Project artists
Some 10,000 artists were commissioned to work for the Federal Art Project.[5] Notable artists include the following:

William Abbenseth[13]
Berenice Abbott[14]
Ida York Abelman[1]:178
Gertrude Abercrombie[15]
Benjamin Abramowitz[16]
Abe Ajay[17]
Ivan Albright[1]:161
Maxine Albro[18]
Charles Alston[19]
Harold Ambellan[20]
Luis Arenal[21]
Bruce Ariss[22]
Victor Arnautoff[23]
Sheva Ausubel[24]
Jozef Bakos[25]
Henry Bannarn[26]
Belle Baranceanu[27]
Patrociño Barela[28]
Will Barnet[29]
Richmond Barthé[30]
Herbert Bayer[1]:195
William Baziotes[31]
Lester Beall[1]:194
Harrison Begay[32]
Daisy Maud Bellis[33][34]
Rainey Bennett[35]:138
Aaron Berkman[36]
Leon Bibel[37]
Robert Blackburn[1]:170
Arnold Blanch[35]:153
Lucile Blanch[38]
Lucienne Bloch[4]
Aaron Bohrod[35]:144
Ilya Bolotowsky[39][40]
Adele Brandeis[41]
Louise Brann[42]
Edgar Britton[35]:138
Manuel Bromberg[43]
James Brooks[44][45]
Selma Burke[46]
Letterio Calapai[47]
Samuel Cashwan[35]:156
Giorgio Cavallon[48]
Daniel Celentano[49]
Dane Chanase[50]
Fay Chong[51]
Claude Clark[52]
Eldzier Cortor[53]
Arthur Covey[54]
Francis Criss[55]
Allan Crite[35]:144
Robert Cronbach[20]
John Steuart Curry[54]
Philip Campbell Curtis[56]
James Daugherty[54]
Stuart Davis[57]
Adolf Dehn[58]
Willem de Kooning[1]:186
Burgoyne Diller[59]
Isami Doi[60]
Mabel Dwight[1]:180, 182
Ruth Egri[61]
Fritz Eichenberg[62]
Jacob Elshin[51]
George Pearse Ennis[63]
Angna Enters[64]
Philip Evergood[1]:161, 174
Louis Ferstadt[65]
Alexander Finta[66]
Joseph Fleck[32]
Seymour Fogel[4][35]:138
Lily Furedi[67]
Todros Geller[68]
Aaron Gelman[54]
Eugenie Gershoy[69]
Enrico Glicenstein[70]
Vincent Glinsky[71]
Bertram Goodman[72]
Arshile Gorky[1]:186
Harry Gottlieb[35]:154
Blanche Grambs[35]:154
Morris Graves[51]
Balcomb Greene[40]
Marion Greenwood[73]
Waylande Gregory[74]
Philip Guston[1]:161
Irving Guyer[75]
Abraham Harriton[76]
Marsden Hartley[1]:161
Knute Heldner[77]
August Henkel[78]
Ralf Henricksen[79]
Magnus Colcord Heurlin[54]
Hilaire Hiler[35]:145
Louis Hirshman[80][81]
Donal Hord[82]
Axel Horn[83]
Milton Horn[84]
Allan Houser[32]
Eitaro Ishigaki[85]
Edwin Boyd Johnson[35]:140
Sargent Claude Johnson[86]
Tom Loftin Johnson[87]
William H. Johnson[88]
Leonard D. Jungwirth[53]
Reuben Kadish[89]
Sheffield Kagy[90]
Jacob Kainen[91]
David Karfunkle[92]
Leon Kelly[35]:145
Paul Kelpe[40]
Troy Kinney[54]
Georgina Klitgaard[35]:145
Gene Kloss[35]:154
Karl Knaths[35]:141, 146
Lee Krasner[93]
Kalman Kubinyi[94]
Yasuo Kuniyoshi[35]:154
Jacob Lawrence[1]:161
Edward Laning[35]:141
Michael Lantz[95]
Jacob Lawrence[1]:161
Blanche Lazzell[35]:154
Tom Lea[96]
Lawrence Lebduska[35]:146
Joseph LeBoit[97]
William Robinson Leigh[32]
Julian E. Levi[35]:146
Jack Levine[35]:146
Monty Lewis[98]
Elba Lightfoot[99]
Abraham Lishinsky[35]:141
Michael Loew[100]
Thomas Gaetano LoMedico[101]
Louis Lozowick[1]:168, 171
Nan Lurie[35]:155
Guy Maccoy[102]
Stanton Macdonald-Wright[103]
George McNeil[35]:144
Moissaye Marans[104]
David Margolis[105]
Kyra Markham[35]:155
Jack Markow[106]
Mercedes Matter[107]
Jan Matulka[35]:144
Dina Melicov[108]
Katherine Milhous[35]:163
Jo Mora[109]
Helmuth Naumer[32]
Louise Nevelson[110]
James Michael Newell[111]
Spencer Baird Nichols[54]
Elizabeth Olds[112]
William C. Palmer[35]:142[113]
Phillip Pavia[54]
Irene Rice Pereira[114]
Jackson Pollock[115]
George Post[35]:150
Gregorio Prestopino[35]:147
Mac Raboy[116]
Anton Refregier[35]:155
Ad Reinhardt[117]
Misha Reznikoff[35]:147
Mischa Richter[54]
Diego Rivera[118]
José de Rivera[119]
Emanuel Glicen Romano[120]
Mark Rothko[1]:161
Alexander Rummler[54]
Augusta Savage[121][122]
Concetta Scaravaglione[35]:157
Louis Schanker[123]
Edwin Scheier[124]
Mary Scheier[124]
Carl Schmitt[54]
William S. Schwartz[35]:147
Georgette Seabrooke[125]
Ben Shahn[126][127]
William Howard Shuster[128]
Mitchell Siporin[129]
John French Sloan[5]
William Sommer[35]:151
Isaac Soyer[130]
Moses Soyer[1]:161
Raphael Soyer[1]:32
Ralph Stackpole[131]
Cesare Stea[132]
Walter Steinhart[54]
Joseph Stella[1]:175
Harry Sternberg[1]:167
Sakari Suzuki[133]
Albert Swinden[40][134]
Dox Thrash
Rufino Tamayo[35]:151
Elizabeth Terrell[35]:147
Lenore Thomas[1]:323
Dox Thrash[3]:373
Mark Tobey[1]:161[51]
Harry Everett Townsend[54]
Edward Buk Ulreich[45]
Jacques Van Aalten[135]
Stuyvesant Van Veen[136]
Herman Volz[137]
Mark Voris[138]
John Augustus Walker[139]
John Walley[35]:143
Paul Weller[140]
George West[54]
Andrew Winter[5]
Jean Xceron[141]
Edgar Yaeger[142]
Bernard Zakheim[143][144]
Karl Zerbe[35]:148
Community Art Center program[edit]

Jacksonville Negro Art Center, Jacksonville, Florida

Eleanor Roosevelt at the dedication of the South Side Community Art Center, Chicago, Illinois (May 7, 1941)

Poster for the opening of the Mason City Art Center, Mason City, Iowa (1941)

Children's art class at the Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota

American design exhibit at the Roswell Museum and Art Center, Roswell, New Mexico (1941)

Poster for the Harlem Community Art Center, New York City (1938)

Class at the Harlem Community Art Center (January 1, 1938)

Poster for the open house of the Greensboro Art Center, Greensboro, North Carolina (1937)

Oklahoma Art Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma

Curry County Art Center, Gold Beach, Oregon
The first federally sponsored community art center opened in December 1936 in Raleigh, North Carolina.[145]

State	City	Name	Notes
Alabama	Birmingham		Extension art gallery[3]:441
Alabama	Birmingham	Healey School Art Gallery	[3]:441
Alabama	Mobile	Mobile Art Center, Public Library Building	[3]:441
Arizona	Phoenix	Phoenix Art Center	[3]:441
District of Columbia	Washington, D.C.	Children's Art Gallery	[3]:441
Florida	Bradenton	Bradenton Art Center	[3]:441
Florida	Coral Gables	Coral Gables Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:441
Florida	Daytona Beach	Daytona Beach Art Center	[3]:441
Florida	Jacksonville	Jacksonville Art Center	[3]:441
Florida	Jacksonville	Jacksonville Beach Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:441
Florida	Jacksonville	Jacksonville Negro Art Center	Extension art gallery[3]:441[146]
Florida	Key West	Key West Community Art Center	[3]:441
Florida	Miami	Miami Art Center	[3]:441
Florida	Milton	Milton Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:441
Florida	New Smyrna Beach	New Smyrna Beach Art Center	[3]:441
Florida	Ocala	Ocala Art Center	[3]:441
Florida	Pensacola	Pensacola Art Center	[3]:441
Florida	St. Petersburg	Jordan Park Negro Exhibition Center	[3]:441
Florida	St. Petersburg	St. Petersburg Art Center	[3]:442
Florida	St. Petersburg	St. Petersburg Civic Exhibition Center	[3]:442
Florida	Tampa	Tampa Art Center	[3]:442
Florida	Tampa	West Tampa Negro Art Gallery	[3]:442
Illinois	Chicago	South Side Community Art Center	[3]:442
Iowa	Mason City	Mason City Art Center	[3]:442
Iowa	Ottumwa	Ottumwa Art Center	[3]:442
Iowa	Sioux City	Sioux City Art Center	[3]:442
Kansas	Topeka	Topeka Art Center	[3]:442
Minnesota	Minneapolis	Walker Art Center	[3]:442[147]
Mississippi	Greenville	Delta Art Center	[3]:442
Mississippi	Oxford	Oxford Art Center	[3]:442[148]
Mississippi	Sunflower	Sunflower County Art Center	[3]:442
Missouri	St. Louis	The People's Art Center	[3]:442
Montana	Butte	Butte Art Center	[3]:442
Montana	Great Falls	Great Falls Art Center	[3]:442
New Mexico	Gallup	Gallup Art Center	[3]:443[149]
New Mexico	Melrose	Melrose Art Center	[3]:443
New Mexico	Roswell	Roswell Museum and Art Center	[3]:443
New York City	Brooklyn	Brooklyn Community Art Center	[3]:443
New York City	Manhattan	Contemporary Art Center	[3]:443[150]
New York City	Harlem	Harlem Community Art Center	[3]:443
New York City	Flushing, Queens	Queensboro Community Art Center	[3]:443
North Carolina	Cary	Cary Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:443
North Carolina	Greensboro	Greensboro Art Center	[145]
North Carolina	Greenville	Greenville Art Gallery	[3]:443
North Carolina	Raleigh	Crosby-Garfield School	Extension art gallery[3]:443
North Carolina	Raleigh	Needham B. Broughton High School	Extension art gallery[3]:443
North Carolina	Raleigh	Raleigh Art Center	[3]:444
North Carolina	Wilmington	Wilmington Art Center	[3]:443
Oklahoma	Bristow	Bristow Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:443
Oklahoma	Claremore	Claremore Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:443
Oklahoma	Claremore	Will Rogers Public Library	Extension art gallery[3]:443
Oklahoma	Clinton	Clinton Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:443
Oklahoma	Cushing	Cushing Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:443
Oklahoma	Edmond	Edmond Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:443
Oklahoma	Marlow	Marlow Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:443
Oklahoma	Oklahoma City	Oklahoma Art Center	[3]:443
Oklahoma	Okmulgee	Okmulgee Art Center	Extension art gallery[3]:443
Oklahoma	Sapulpa	Sapulpa Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:443
Oklahoma	Shawnee	Shawnee Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:443
Oklahoma	Skiatook	Skiatook Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:443
Oregon	Gold Beach	Curry County Art Center	[3]:444
Oregon	La Grande	Grande Ronde Valley Art Center	[3]:444
Oregon	Salem	Salem Art Center	[3]:444
Pennsylvania	Somerset	Somerset Art Center	[3]:444
Tennessee	Chattanooga	Hamilton County Art Center	[3]:444
Tennessee	Memphis	LeMoyne Art Center	[3]:444
Tennessee	Nashville	Peabody Art Center	[3]:444
Tennessee	Norris	Anderson County Art Center	[3]:444
Utah	Cedar City	Cedar City Art Exhibition Association	Extension art gallery[3]:444
Utah	Helper	Helper Community Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:444
Utah	Price	Price Community Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:444
Utah	Provo	Provo Community Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:444
Utah	Salt Lake City	Utah State Art Center	[3]:444
Virginia	Altavista	Altavista Extension Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:445
Virginia	Big Stone Gap	Big Stone Gap Art Gallery	[3]:444
Virginia	Lynchburg	Lynchburg Art Gallery	[3]:444
Virginia	Richmond	Children's Art Gallery	[3]:444
Virginia	Saluda	Middlesex County Museum	Extension art gallery[3]:444
Washington	Chehalis	Lewis County Exhibition Center	Extension art gallery[3]:444
Washington	Pullman	Washington State College	Extension art gallery[3]:444
Washington	Spokane	Spokane Art Center	[3]:444[151]
West Virginia	Morgantown	Morgantown Art Center	[3]:445
West Virginia	Parkersburg	Parkersburg Art Center	[3]:445
West Virginia	Scotts Run	Scotts Run Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:445
Wyoming	Casper	Casper Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:445
Wyoming	Lander	Lander Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:445
Wyoming	Laramie	Laramie Art Center	[3]:445
Wyoming	Newcastle	Lander Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:445
Wyoming	Rawlins	Rawlins Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:445
Wyoming	Riverton	Riverton Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:445
Wyoming	Rock Springs	Rock Springs Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:445
Wyoming	Sheridan	Sheridan Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:445
Wyoming	Torrington	Torrington Art Gallery	Extension art gallery[3]:445
Index of American Design[edit]

Federal Art Project Illinois poster for an exhibition of the Index of American Design
As we study the drawings of the Index of American Design we realize that the hands that made the first two hundred years of this country's material culture expressed something more than untutored creative instinct and the rude vigor of a frontier civilization. … The Index, in bringing together thousands of particulars from various sections of the country, tells the story of American hand skills and traces intelligible patterns within that story.

—?Holger Cahill, national director of the Federal Art Project[152]:xv
The Index of American Design program of the Federal Art Project produced a pictorial survey of the crafts and decorative arts of the United States from the early colonial period to 1900. Artists working for the Index produced nearly 18,000 meticulously faithful watercolor drawings,[1]:226 documenting material culture by largely anonymous artisans.[152]:ix Objects range from furniture, silver, glass, stoneware and textiles to tavern signs, ships's figureheads, cigar-store figures, carousel horses, toys, tools and weather vanes.[1]:224[153] Photography was used only to a limited degree since artists could more accurately and effectively present the form, character, color and texture of the objects. The best drawings approach the work of such 19th-century trompe-l'œil painters as William Harnett; lesser works represent the process of artists who were given employment and expert training.[152]:xiv

"It was not a nostalgic or antiquarian enterprise," wrote historian Roger G. Kennedy. "It was initiated by modernists dedicated to abstract design, hoping to influence industrial design — thus in many ways it parallelled the founding philosophy of the Museum of Modern Art in New York."[1]:224


Holger Cahill, national director of the Federal Art Project, speaking at the Harlem Community Art Center (October 24, 1938)
Like all WPA programs, the Index had the primary purpose of providing employment.[154] Its function was to identify and record material of historical significance that had not been studied and was in danger of being lost. Its aim was to gather together these pictorial records into a body of material that would form the basis for organic development of American design — a usable American past accessible to artists, designers, manufacturers, museums, libraries and schools. The United States had no single comprehensive collection of authenticated historical native design comparable to those available to scholars, artists and industrial designers in Europe.[155]

"In one sense the Index is a kind of archaeology," wrote Holger Cahill. "It helps to correct a bias which has tended to relegate the work of the craftsman and the folk artist to the subconscious of our history where it can be recovered only by digging. In the past we have lost whole sequences out of their story, and have all but forgotten the unique contribution of hand skills in our culture."[152]:xv

The Index of American Design operated in 34 states and the District of Columbia from 1935 to 1942. It was founded by Romana Javitz, head of the Picture Collection of the New York Public Library, and textile designer Ruth Reeves.[1]:224 Reeves was appointed the first national coordinator; she was succeeded by C. Adolph Glassgold (1936) and Benjamin Knotts (1940). Constance Rourke was national editor.[152]:xii The work is in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.[156]

The Index employed an average of 300 artists during its six years in operation.[152]:xiv One artist was Magnus S. Fossum, a longtime farmer who was compelled by the Depression to move from the Midwest to Florida. After he lost his left hand in an accident in 1934, he produced watercolor renderings for the Index, using magnifiers and drafting instruments for accuracy and precision. Fossum eventually received an insurance settlement that made it possible for him to buy another farm and leave the Federal Art Project.[1]:228


Magnus Fossum copying the 1770 Boston Town Coverlet (February 1940)

 

Boston Town Coverlet
Magnus Fossum (1935–42)

WPA Art Recovery Project[edit]
External video
Sixthaveatfourteenth FAP John Sloan.jpg
 Returning America’s Art to America, General Services Administration[157]
Hundreds of thousands of artworks were commissioned under the Federal Art Project.[5] Many of the portable works have been lost, abandoned or given away as unauthorized gifts. As custodian of the work, which remains Federal property, the General Services Administration maintains an inventory[158] and works with the FBI and art community to identify and recover WPA art.[159] In 2010 it produced a 22-minute documentary about the WPA Art Recovery Project, "Returning America’s Art to America", narrated by Charles Osgood.[160]

In July 2014, the General Services Administration estimated that only 20,000 of the portable works have been located to date.[158][161] In 2015, GSA investigators found 122 Federal Art Project paintings in California libraries, where most had been stored and forgotten.[162]

See also[edit]
List of Federal Art Project artists
Section of Painting and Sculpture
Public Works of Art Project
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp Kalfatovic, Martin R. (1994). The New Deal Fine Arts Projects: A Bibliography, 1933–1992. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-2749-2. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
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Jump up ^ Abbott, Leala (December 2004). "Arts and Culture, Art Center records 1930–2004, Finding Aid". Milstein/Rosenthal Center for Media & Technology. 92nd Street Y. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Leon Bibel: Art, Activism, and the WPA". Lora Robins Gallery of Design from Nature. University of Richmond. Archived from the original on 2015-06-23. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Lucile Blanch, 1940 Oct. 31". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "1939 World's Fair Mural Study – Chicago IL". The Living New Deal. Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2015-06-10.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Williamsburg Housing Development Murals – Brooklyn NY". The Living New Deal. Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2015-06-10.
Jump up ^ "Oral history interview with Adele Brandeis". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. June 1, 1965. Retrieved 2015-06-18.
Jump up ^ "Louise Brann, ca. 1935". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Manuel Bromberg, 1939 Jan. 23". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Oral history interview with James Brooks". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. June 10–12, 1965. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
^ Jump up to: a b "Bailey, Chief Librarian, Praises WPA Art Project". Long Island Sunday Press. Long Island, New York. April 5, 1936.
Jump up ^ "Selma Burke". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-16.
Jump up ^ "Letterio Calapai, ca. 1937". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Oral history interview with Giorgio Cavallon, 1974". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2016-04-20.
Jump up ^ "P.S. 150 Mural – Queens NY". The Living New Deal. Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2016-05-11.
Jump up ^ "Dane Chanase, 1942 Jan. 26". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mahoney, Eleanor (2012). "The Federal Art Project in Washington State". The Great Depression in Washington State. Pacific Northwest Labor and Civil Rights Project, University of Washington. Retrieved 2015-06-23.
Jump up ^ "Claude Clark Sr., In the Groove". The Collection Online. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2016-04-20.
^ Jump up to: a b "Recovering America's Art for America". General Services Administration. 2010. Retrieved 2015-06-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "Artists". WPA Art Inventory Project. Connecticut State Library. Archived from the original on 2015-07-04. Retrieved 2015-07-03.
Jump up ^ "Francis Criss, 1940 Oct. 29". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "History and Mission". About Us. Phoenix Art Museum. Archived from the original on 2015-09-05. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ Conn, Charis (February 15, 2013). "Art in Public: Stuart Davis on Abstract Art and the WPA, 1939". Annotations: The NEH Preservation Project. WNYC. Retrieved 2015-06-16.
Jump up ^ "Adolf Dehn, 1940 Oct. 29". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Oral history interview with Burgoyne Diller". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. October 2, 1964. Retrieved 2015-06-16.
Jump up ^ "Isami Doi, Near Coney Island". The Collection Online. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2015-06-19.
Jump up ^ "Ruth Egri, 1937 Apr. 12". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Fritz Eichenberg, April". The Collection Online. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "George Pearse Ennis, ca. 1936". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Angna Enters, 1940 Nov. 18". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Louis Ferstadt, 1939 Jan. 25". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-19.
Jump up ^ "Alexander Finta, 1939 June 14". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Federal Art Project, Photographic Division collection, circa 1920–1965, bulk 1935–1942". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-11-27.
Jump up ^ "Activist Arts". A New Deal for the Arts. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Eugenie Gershoy, 1938 Mar. 28". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Enrico Glicenstein, 1940 Sept. 29". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Vincent Glinsky, 1939 Mar. 8". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Bertram Goodman, ca. 1939". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Marion Greenwood, 1940 June 4". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Waylande Gregory". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. June 2, 1937. Retrieved 2015-06-16.
Jump up ^ "Irving Guyer, Reading by Lamplight". The Collection Online. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Abraham Harriton, 1938 Aug. 16". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ Megraw, Richard (January 10, 2011). "Federal Art Project". KnowLA Encyclopedia of Louisiana. Louisiana Endowment for the Humanities. Retrieved 2015-10-25.
Jump up ^ "August Henkel, ca. 1939". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Ralf C. Henricksen, 1938". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Service on the home front There's a job for every Pennsylvanian in these civilian defense efforts". Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "Stop and get your free fag bag Careless matches aid the Axis". Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "Donal Hord, 1937". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Axel Horr [sic], 1940 June 28". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Milton Horn, c. 1937". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Eitaro Ishigaki, ca. 1940". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Sargent Claude Johnson, Dorothy C.". The Collection Online. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Tom Loftin Johnson, 1938". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "William H. Johnson: A Guide for Teachers". American Art Museum and the Renwick Gallery. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 2015-06-13. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
Jump up ^ "Reuben Kadish, Conversation with a Quarry Master". The Collection Online. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Sheffield Kagy, Symphony Conductor". The Collection Online. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Jacob Kainen, Rooming House". The Collection Online. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "David Karfunkle, ca. 1938". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-19.
Jump up ^ "Oral history interview with Lee Krasner". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. November 2, 1964 – April 11, 1968. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Kalman Kubinyi, Skaters". The Collection Online. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Michael Lantz". Smithsonian American Art Museum. Retrieved 2015-06-19.
Jump up ^ "New Mexico State University: Branson Library Art – Las Cruces NM". The Living New Deal. Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2015-06-10.
Jump up ^ "Joseph LeBoit, Tranquility". The Collection Online. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2015-06-19.
Jump up ^ "Monty Lewis, 1938 May 26". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Elba Lightfoot, 1938 Jan. 14". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-19.
Jump up ^ "Murals Approved of 5 WPA Artists". The New York Times. October 28, 1935. Retrieved 2015-06-24.
Jump up ^ "Thomas Gaetano Lo Medico, 1938 May 12". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Oral history interview with Guy and Genoi Pettit Maccoy". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. July 24, 1965. Retrieved 2015-06-13.
Jump up ^ "Federal Art Project Artists, 1937". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Moissaye Marans, ca. 1939". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "David Margolis, 1940 May 29". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-19.
Jump up ^ "Jack Markow, Street in Manasquan". The Collection Online. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Mercedes Matter Interview Excerpts". Hans Hofmann: Artist/Teacher, Teacher/Artist. PBS. 2003. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Dina Melicov, 1939 Apr. 26". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "King City High School Auditorium Bas Reliefs – King City CA". The Living New Deal. Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Louise Nevelson". Guggenheim Collection Online. Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
Jump up ^ "James Michael Newell, ca. 1937". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Elizabeth Olds, 1937". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-18.
Jump up ^ "William C. Palmer, 1936". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Irene Rice Pereira, 1938 Aug. 22". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Jackson Pollock". Guggenheim Collection Online. Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation. Archived from the original on 2015-05-30. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Mac Raboy, Hitchhiker". The Collection Online. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Oral history interview with Ad Reinhardt". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. 1964. Retrieved 2015-06-16.
Jump up ^ "City College of San Francisco: Rivera Mural – San Francisco CA". The Living New Deal. Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Oral history interview with José de Rivera". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. February 24, 1968. Retrieved 2015-06-12.
Jump up ^ "Emanuel Glicen Romano, 1936 Nov. 23". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-18.
Jump up ^ "Augusta Savage". Smithsonian American Art Museum. Retrieved 2015-06-10.
Jump up ^ "The Harp by Augusta Savage". 1939 NY World's Fair. Retrieved 2015-06-10.
Jump up ^ "Oral history interview with Louis Schanker". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. 1963. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
^ Jump up to: a b "Edwin & Mary Scheier". New Hampshire State Council on the Arts. February 12, 2015. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ Pogrebin, Robin (September 16, 2012). "At Harlem Hospital, Murals Get a New Life". The New York Times. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Oral history interview with Ben Shahn". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. October 3, 1965. Retrieved 2015-06-13.
Jump up ^ "Rikers Island WPA Murals – East Elmhurst NY". The Living New Deal. Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2015-06-10.
Jump up ^ "Oral history interview with Will Shuster, 1964". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2016-04-20.
Jump up ^ "Lane Tech College Prep High School Auditorium Mural – Chicago IL". The Living New Deal. Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Isaac Soyer, A Nickel a Shine". The Collection Online. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "George Washington High School: Stackpole Mural – San Francisco CA". The Living New Deal. Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Cesare Stea, 1939 Mar. 2". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Sakari Suzuki, 1936 Dec. 2". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-14.
Jump up ^ Dunlap, David W. (November 5, 2014). "At Future Cornell Campus, the First Step in Restoring Murals Is Finding Them". The New York Times. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Jacques Van Aalten, 1938 May 26". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Stuyvesant Van Veen papers, circa 1926-1988". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Herman Roderick Volz, Lockout". The Collection Online. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/interviews/oral-history-interview-mark-voris-12722
Jump up ^ "Murals by John Augustus Walker on permanent display in the Museum of Mobile lobby, Mobile, Alabama". Library of Congress. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "Paul Weller, Breakdown". The Collection Online. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Jean Xceron, 1942 Jan. 13". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-18.
Jump up ^ "Edgar L. Yaeger papers, 1923-1989". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-17.
Jump up ^ "California Federal Art Project papers, 1935-1964". Archives of American Art. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2015-06-23.
Jump up ^ Nolte, Carl (February 27, 2015). "UCSF to let public see trove of medical history murals". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2015-06-23.
^ Jump up to: a b Parker, Thomas C. (October 15, 1938). "Federally Sponsored Community Art Centers". Bulletin of the American Library Association. American Library Association. 32 (11): 807. Retrieved 2015-10-25.
Jump up ^ "Children drawing at the Jacksonville Negro Art Center of the WPA Federal Art Project- Jacksonville, Florida". Florida Memory. State Library and Archives of Florida. Retrieved 2015-10-27.
Jump up ^ Rash, John (January 30, 2015). "The Walker's WPA roots are still relevant today". Star Tribune. Minneapolis, Minnesota. Retrieved 2015-06-21.
Jump up ^ Grieve, Victoria (2009). The Federal Art Project and the Creation of Middlebrow Culture. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 145. ISBN 9780252034213.
Jump up ^ "WPA Art Collection – Gallup NM". The Living New Deal. Department of Geography, University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2015-07-19.
Jump up ^ Abbott, Leala (December 2004). "Arts and Culture, Art Center records 1930–2004, Finding Aid". Milstein/Rosenthal Center for Media & Technology. 92nd Street Y. Retrieved 2015-06-21. In 1935 and 1936, 92Y, in cooperation with the federal Works Progress Administration (W.P.A.) and the New York City Board of Education, began offering free courses … The Contemporary Art Center, part of the W.P.A.'s Federal Art Project, offered daytime courses for serious art students and was led by Nathaniel Dirk.
Jump up ^ Mahoney, Eleanor (2012). "The Spokane Arts Center: Bringing Art to the People". The Great Depression in Washington State. Pacific Northwest Labor and Civil Rights Project, University of Washington. Retrieved 2015-06-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Cahill, Holger (1950). "Introduction". In Christensen, Erwin O. The Index of American Design. New York: The Macmillan Company. pp. ix–xvii. OCLC 217678.
Jump up ^ Herzberg, Max (October 15, 1950). "American Craftsmanship Offers Beauty and Utility". Newark Evening News.
Jump up ^ Jones, Louis C. (October 22, 1950). "Only Yesterday It Was Wooden Indians and Whittled Toys". The New York Times. Retrieved 2015-10-29.
Jump up ^ Jewell, Edward Alden (March 19, 1939). "Saving Our Usable Past". The New York Times. Retrieved 2015-10-29.
Jump up ^ "History". Index of American Design. National Gallery of Art. Retrieved 2015-10-28.
Jump up ^ "Works Progress Administration (WPA) Art Recovery Project". General Services Administration. Archived from the original on September 19, 2015. Retrieved September 10, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "New Deal Artwork: GSA's Inventory Project". General Services Administration. Retrieved 2015-06-13.
Jump up ^ "New Deal Artwork: Ownership and Responsibility". General Services Administration. Retrieved 2015-06-13.
Jump up ^ "Works Progress Administration (WPA) Art Recovery Project". Office of the Inspector General, General Services Administration. Archived from the original on 2015-09-19. Retrieved 2015-06-13.
Jump up ^ MacFarlane, Scott (September 17, 2014). "Lost History: Hunting for WPA Paintings". NBC 4. Washington, D.C. Retrieved 2015-06-13.
Jump up ^ MacFarlane, Scott (April 20, 2015). "Dozens of Pieces of Lost WPA Art Found in California". NBC 4. Washington, D.C. Retrieved 2015-06-13.
Further reading[edit]
Kennedy, Roger G.; David Larkin (2009). When art worked. New York: Rizzoli. ISBN 978-0-8478-3089-3.
Federal Art Project. New York City. Federal Art Centers of New York. FAP: New York, 1937? 8 pp.
A brief overview of art in America and the functions of the FAP. Brief description of what the FAP art centers do, particularly in New York City. Brief descriptions of the four art centers in New York: Contemporary Art Center; Brooklyn Community Art Center; Harlem Community Art Center; and the Queensboro Community Art Center. FOUND IN AAA Reel 1085.19-27
Kelly, Andrew, Kentucky by Design: American Culture, the Decorative Arts and the Federal Art Project's Index of American Design, University Press of Kentucky, 2015, ISBN 978-0-8131-5567-8
External links[edit]
	Wikimedia Commons has media related to Federal Art Project.
The Living New Deal research project and online public archive at the University of California, Berkeley
Recovering America's Art for America (2010), General Services Administration short documentary about efforts to recover WPA art
Posters for the People, online archive of WPA posters
WPA Posters collection at the Library of Congress
New Deal Art Registry
wpamurals.com - links to each state, with examples of WPA art in each
Federal Art Project Photographic Division collection at the Smithsonian Archives of American Art
"1934: A New Deal for Artists" Exhibition at the Smithsonian American Art Museum
“Art Within Reach”: Federal Art Project Community Art Centers at George Mason University
WPA Murals and American Abstract Artists at American Abstract Artists
WPA Prints and Murals in New York
[hide] v t e
Works Progress Administration
Federal Project Number One
Federal Art Project Federal Music Project Federal Theatre Project Federal Writers' Project Pack Horse Library Project Historical Records Survey
Authority control	
WorldCat Identities VIAF: 138341191 SUDOC: 033839948
Categories: Federal Art ProjectNew Deal projects of the artsWorks Progress AdministrationNew Deal agenciesAmerican artMurals in the United States1935 establishments in Washington, D.C.Government agencies established in 1935Cultural history of the United StatesPublic art in the United StatesModern art1943 disestablishments in Washington, D.C.
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Works Progress Administration
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Works Progress Administration
WPA-USA-sign.svg
Agency overview
Formed	May 6, 1935
Preceding	
Federal Emergency Relief Administration
Dissolved	June 30, 1943
Employees	8.5 million 1935–1943
3.3 million in November 1938 (peak)
Annual budget	$1.3 billion (1935)
Key document	
Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935
The Works Progress Administration (WPA; renamed in 1939 as the Work Projects Administration) was the largest and most ambitious American New Deal agency, employing millions of people (mostly unskilled men) to carry out public works projects,[1] including the construction of public buildings and roads. In a much smaller project, Federal Project Number One, the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects.[1]

Almost every community in the United States had a new park, bridge or school constructed by the agency. The WPA's initial appropriation in 1935 was for $4.9 billion (about 6.7 percent of the 1935 GDP).[2]

Headed by Harry Hopkins, the WPA provided jobs and income to the unemployed during the Great Depression in the United States. At its peak in 1938, it provided paid jobs for three million unemployed men and women, as well as youth in a separate division, the National Youth Administration. Between 1935 and 1943, when the agency was disbanded, the WPA employed 8.5 million people.[3] Most people who needed a job were eligible for employment in some capacity.[4] Hourly wages were typically set to the prevailing wages in each area.[5]:70 Full employment, which was reached in 1942 and emerged as a long-term national goal around 1944, was not the goal of the WPA; rather, it tried to provide one paid job for all families in which the breadwinner suffered long-term unemployment.[6]:64, 184

"The stated goal of public building programs was to end the depression or, at least, alleviate its worst effects," sociologist Robert D. Leighninger asserted. "Millions of people needed subsistence incomes. Work relief was preferred over public assistance (the dole) because it maintained self-respect, reinforced the work ethic, and kept skills sharp."[7]:228

The WPA was a national program that operated its own projects in cooperation with state and local governments, which provided 10–30% of the costs. Usually the local sponsor provided land and often trucks and supplies, with the WPA responsible for wages (and for the salaries of supervisors, who were not on relief). WPA sometimes took over state and local relief programs that had originated in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) or Federal Emergency Relief Administration programs.[6]:63

It was liquidated on June 30, 1943, as a result of low unemployment due to the worker shortage of World War II. The WPA had provided millions of Americans with jobs for eight years.[6]:71

Contents  [hide] 
1	Establishment
2	Employment
3	Projects
3.1	Federal Project Number One
3.1.1	Federal Art Project
3.1.2	Federal Music Project
3.1.3	Federal Theatre Project
3.1.4	Federal Writers' Project
3.1.5	Historical Records Survey
4	Relief for African Americans
5	Women
6	Criticism
7	Evolution
8	Termination
9	Legacy
10	See also
11	References
12	Further reading
13	External links
Establishment[edit]

FDR prepares to speak about the establishment of the work relief program and Social Security at his fireside chat of April 28, 1935.

FERA administrator and WPA head Harry Hopkins speaking to reporters (November 1935)
A joint resolution introduced January 21, 1935,[8] the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 was passed by the United States Congress and signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on April 8, 1935.[9] On May 6, 1935, FDR issued Executive Order 7034, establishing the Works Progress Administration.[10][11] The WPA superseded the work of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, which was dissolved. Direct relief assistance was permanently replaced by a national work relief program—a major public works program directed by the WPA.[12]

The WPA was largely shaped by Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration and close adviser to Roosevelt. Both Roosevelt and Hopkins believed that the route to economic recovery and the lessened importance of the dole would be in employment programs such as the WPA.[6]:56–57 Hallie Flanagan, national director of the Federal Theatre Project, wrote that "for the first time in the relief experiments of this country the preservation of the skill of the worker, and hence the preservation of his self-respect, became important."[13]:17

The WPA was organized into the following divisions:

The Division of Engineering and Construction, which planned and supervised construction projects including airports, dams, highways and sanitation systems.[14]
The Division of Professional and Service Projects (called the Division of Women's and Professional Projects in 1937), which was responsible for white-collar projects including education programs, recreation programs, and the arts projects. It was later named the Division of Community Service Programs and the Service Division.[15]
The Division of Finance.[16]
The Division of Information.[17]
The Division of Investigation, which succeeded a comparable division at FERA and investigated fraud, misappropriation of funds and disloyalty.[18]
The Division of Statistics, also known as the Division of Social Research.[19]
The Project Control Division, which processed project applications.[20]
Other divisions including the Employment, Management, Safety, Supply, and Training and Reemployment.[21]
Employment[edit]

WPA road development project
These ordinary men and women proved to be extraordinary beyond all expectation. They were golden threads woven in the national fabric. In this, they shamed the political philosophy that discounted their value and rewarded the one that placed its faith in them, thus fulfilling the founding vision of a government by and for its people. All its people.

—?Nick Taylor, American-Made: The Enduring Legacy of the WPA[22]:530
The goal of the WPA was to employ most of the unemployed people on relief until the economy recovered. Harry Hopkins testified to Congress in January 1935 why he set the number at 3.5 million, using Federal Emergency Relief Administration data. Estimating costs at $1,200 per worker per year ($21.4 thousand in present-day terms[23]), he asked for and received $4 billion ($71.4 billion in present-day terms[23]). Many women were employed, but they were few compared to men.

In 1935 there were 20 million people on relief in the United States. Of these, 8.3 million were children under 16 years of age; 3.8 million were persons between the ages of 16 and 65 who were not working or seeking work. These included housewives, students in school, and incapacitated persons. Another 750,000 were person age 65 or over.[24]:562 Thus, of the total of 20 million persons then receiving relief, 13 million were not considered eligible for employment. This left a total of 7 million presumably employable persons between the ages of 16 and 65 inclusive. Of these, however, 1.65 million were said to be farm operators or persons who had some non-relief employment, while another 350,000 were, despite the fact that they were already employed or seeking work, considered incapacitated. Deducting this 2 million from the total of 7.15 million, there remained 5.15 million persons age 16 to 65, unemployed, looking for work, and able to work.[24]:562


FDR and Hopkins (September 1938)
Because of the assumption that only one worker per family would be permitted to work under the proposed program, this total of 5.15 million was further reduced by 1.6 million—the estimated number of workers who were members of families with two or more employable people. Thus, there remained a net total of 3.55 million workers in as many households for whom jobs were to be provided.[24]:562

The WPA reached its peak employment of 3,334,594 people in November 1938.[22]:547 To be eligible for WPA employment, an individual had to be an American citizen, 18 or older, able-bodied, unemployed, and certified as in need by a local public relief agency approved by the WPA. The WPA Division of Employment selected the worker's placement to WPA projects based on previous experience or training. Worker pay was based on three factors: the region of the country, the degree of urbanization, and the individual's skill. It varied from $19 per month to $94 per month, with the average wage being about $52.50—$913.00 in present-day terms.[23][25] The goal was to pay the local prevailing wage, but limit the hours of work to 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week; the stated minimum being 30 hours a week, or 120 hours a month.[24]:213

Projects[edit]

Typical plaque on a WPA project

Griffith Observatory

Timberline Lodge
WPA projects were administered by the Division of Engineering and Construction and the Division of Professional and Service Projects. Most projects were initiated, planned and sponsored by states, counties or cities. Nationwide projects were sponsored until 1939.[26]

The WPA built traditional infrastructure of the New Deal such as roads, bridges, schools, courthouses, hospitals, sidewalks, waterworks, and post-offices, but also constructed museums, swimming pools, parks, community centers, playgrounds, coliseums, markets, fairgrounds, tennis courts, zoos, botanical gardens, auditoriums, waterfronts, city halls, gyms, and university unions. Most of these are still in use today.[7]:226 The amount of infrastructure projects of the WPA included 40,000 new and 85,000 improved buildings. These new buildings included 5,900 new schools; 9,300 new auditoriums, gyms, and recreational buildings; 1,000 new libraries; 7,000 new dormitories; and 900 new armories. In addition, infrastructure projects included 2,302 stadiums, grandstands, and bleachers; 52 fairgrounds and rodeo grounds; 1,686 parks covering 75,152 acres; 3,185 playgrounds; 3,026 athletic fields; 805 swimming pools; 1,817 handball courts; 10,070 tennis courts; 2,261 horseshoe pits; 1,101 ice-skating areas; 138 outdoor theatres; 254 golf courses; and 65 ski jumps.[7]:227 Total expenditures on WPA projects through June 1941 totaled approximately $11.4 billion—the equivalent of $190 billion today.[23] Over $4 billion was spent on highway, road, and street projects; more than $1 billion on public buildings, including the iconic Dock Street Theatre in Charleston, the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, and Timberline Lodge in Oregon's Mount Hood National Forest.[27]:252–253

More than $1 billion—$16.6 billion today[23]—was spent on publicly owned or operated utilities; and another $1 billion on welfare projects, including sewing projects for women, the distribution of surplus commodities, and school lunch projects.[24]:129 One construction project was the Merritt Parkway in Connecticut, the bridges of which were each designed as architecturally unique.[28] In its eight-year run, the WPA built 325 firehouses and renovated 2,384 of them across the United States. The 20,000 miles of water mains, installed by their hand as well, contributed to increased fire protection across the country.[6]:69

The direct focus of the WPA projects changed with need. In 1935 priority projects were to improve infrastructure; roads, extension of electricity to rural areas, water conservation, sanitation and flood control. In 1936, as outlined in that year’s Emergency Relief Appropriations Act, public facilities became a focus; parks and associated facilities, public buildings, utilities, airports, and transportation projects were funded. The following year, saw the introduction of agricultural improvements, such as the production of marl fertilizer and the eradication of fungus pests. As the Second World War approached, and then eventually began, WPA projects became increasingly defense related.[6]:70

One project of the WPA was funding state-level library service demonstration projects, to create new areas of library service to underserved populations and to extend rural service.[29] Another project was the Household Service Demonstration Project, which trained 30,000 women for domestic employment. South Carolina had one of the larger statewide library service demonstration projects. At the end of the project in 1943, South Carolina had twelve publicly funded county libraries, one regional library, and a funded state library agency.[30]

Federal Project Number One[edit]
A significant aspect of the Works Progress Administration was the Federal Project Number One, which had five different parts: the Federal Art Project, the Federal Music Project, the Federal Theatre Project, the Federal Writers Project, and the Historical Records Survey. The government wanted to provide new federal cultural support instead of just providing direct grants to private institutions. After only one year, over 40,000 artists and other talented workers had been employed through this project in the United States.[31] Cedric Larson stated that "The impact made by the five major cultural projects of the WPA upon the national consciousness is probably greater in toto than anyone readily realizes. As channels of communication between the administration and the country at large, both directly and indirectly, the importance of these projects cannot be overestimated, for they all carry a tremendous appeal to the eye, the ear, or the intellect—or all three."[32]:491

Federal Art Project[edit]
Main article: Federal Art Project
This project was directed by Holger Cahill and in 1936, the peak for employment in this federal project, the Federal Art Project employed over 5,300 artists. The Arts Service Division created illustrations and posters for the WPA writers, musicians, and theaters. The Exhibition Division had public exhibitions of artwork from the WPA, and artists from the Art Teaching Division were employed in settlement houses and community centers to give classes to an estimated 50,000 children and adults. They set up over 100 art centers around the country that served an estimated eight million individuals.[31]

Federal Music Project[edit]

Noon-hour WPA band concert in Lafayette Square, New Orleans (1940)
Main article: Federal Music Project
Directed by Nikolai Sokoloff, former principal conductor of the Cleveland Orchestra, the Federal Music Project employed over 16,000 musicians at its peak. Its purpose was to establish different ensembles such as chamber groups, orchestras, choral units, opera units, concert bands, military bands, dance bands, and theater orchestras that gave an estimated 131,000 performances and programs to 92 million people each week.[31] The Federal Music Project performed plays and dances, as well as radio dramas.[32]:494 In addition, the Federal Music Project gave music classes to an estimated 132,000 children and adults every week, recorded folk music, served as copyists, arrangers, and librarians to expand the availability of music, and experimented in music therapy.[31] Sokoloff stated, "Music can serve no useful purpose unless it is heard, but these totals on the listeners' side are more eloquent than statistics as they show that in this country there is a great hunger and eagerness for music."[32]:494

Federal Theatre Project[edit]
Main article: Federal Theatre Project
This project was directed by Iowan Hallie Flanagan, and employed 12,700 performers at its peak. These performers presented more than 1,000 performances each month to almost one million people, produced 1,200 plays in the four years it was established, and introduced 100 new playwrights. Many performers later became successful in Hollywood including Orson Welles, John Houseman, Burt Lancaster, Joseph Cotten, Canada Lee, Will Geer, Joseph Losey, Virgil Thomson, Nicholas Ray, E.G. Marshall and Sidney Lumet. The Federal Theatre Project was the first project to end in June 1939 after four years from an end of funding from the federal government.[31]

Federal Writers' Project[edit]
Main article: Federal Writers' Project
This project was directed by Henry Alsberg and employed 6,686 writers at its peak in 1936.[31] By January 1939, more than 275 major books and booklets had been published by the FWP.[32]:494 Most famously, the FWP created the American Guide Series, which produced thorough guidebooks for every state that include descriptions of towns, waterways, historic sites, oral histories, photographs, and artwork.[31] An association or group that put up the cost of publication sponsored each book, the cost was anywhere from $5,000 to $10,000. In almost all cases, the book sales were able to reimburse their sponsors.[32]:494 Additionally, another important part of this project was to record oral histories to create archives such as the Slave Narratives and collections of folklore. These writers also participated in research and editorial services to other government agencies.[31]

Historical Records Survey[edit]
Main article: Historical Records Survey
This project was the smallest of Federal Project Number One and served to identify, collect, and conserve United States’ historical records.[31] It is one of the biggest bibliographical efforts and was directed by Dr. Luther H. Evans. At its peak, this project employed more than 4,400 workers.[32]:494


1940 WPA poster using Little Miss Muffet to promote reading among children.

 

WPA health education poster about cancer, c. 1936–1938

 

Poster for the WPA shows various items that can be purchased at the 5 & 10¢ store

 

WPA poster advertising art classes for children

 

WPA poster promoting the zoo as a place to visit, showing an elephant

 

1936 WPA Poster for Federal Theatre Project presentation

 

WPA poster encouraging laborers to work for America

Relief for African Americans[edit]
The share of Federal Emergency Relief Administration and WPA benefits for African Americans exceeded their proportion of the general population. The FERA's first relief census reported that more than two million African Americans were on relief during early 1933, a proportion of the African-American population (17.8%) that was nearly double the proportion of whites on relief (9.5%).[33] This was during the period of Jim Crow and racial segregation in the South, when blacks were largely disenfranchised.

By 1935, there were 3,500,000 African Americans (men, women and children) on relief, almost 35 percent of the African-American population; plus another 250,000 African-American adults were working on WPA projects. Altogether during 1938, about 45 percent of the nation's African-American families were either on relief or were employed by the WPA.[33]

Civil rights leaders initially objected that African Americans were proportionally underrepresented. African American leaders made such a claim with respect to WPA hires in New Jersey, stating, "In spite of the fact that Blacks indubitably constitute more than 20 percent of the State's unemployed, they composed 15.9% of those assigned to W.P.A. jobs during 1937."[24]:287 Nationwide in 1940, 9.8% of the population were African American.

However, by 1941, the perception of discrimination against African Americans had changed to the point that the NAACP magazine Opportunity hailed the WPA:

It is to the eternal credit of the administrative officers of the WPA that discrimination on various projects because of race has been kept to a minimum and that in almost every community Negroes have been given a chance to participate in the work program. In the South, as might have been expected, this participation has been limited, and differential wages on the basis of race have been more or less effectively established; but in the northern communities, particularly in the urban centers, the Negro has been afforded his first real opportunity for employment in white-collar occupations.[24]:295

The WPA mostly operated segregated units, as did its youth affiliate, the National Youth Administration.[34] Blacks were hired by the WPA as supervisors in the North; however of 10,000 WPA supervisors in the South, only 11 were black.[35] Historian Anthony Badger argues, "New Deal programs in the South routinely discriminated against blacks and perpetuated segregation."[36]

Women[edit]

Hispanic women in Costilla, New Mexico, weaving rag rugs in 1939.
About 15% of the household heads on relief were women, and youth programs were operated separately by the National Youth Administration. The average worker was about 40 years old (about the same as the average family head on relief).

WPA policies were consistent with the strong belief of the time that husbands and wives should not both be working (because the second person working would take one job away from some other breadwinner). A study of 2,000 female workers in Philadelphia showed that 90% were married, but wives were reported as living with their husbands in only 18 percent of the cases. Only 2 percent of the husbands had private employment. Of the 2,000 women, all were responsible for one to five additional people in the household.[24]:283

In rural Missouri, 60% of the WPA-employed women were without husbands (12% were single; 25% widowed; and 23% divorced, separated or deserted). Thus, only 40% were married and living with their husbands, but 59% of the husbands were permanently disabled, 17% were temporarily disabled, 13% were too old to work, and remaining 10% were either unemployed or handicapped. Most of the women worked with sewing projects, where they were taught to use sewing machines and made clothing and bedding, as well as supplies for hospitals, orphanages, and adoption centers.[24]:283[37]

One WPA-funded project, the Pack Horse Library Project, mainly employed women to deliver books to rural areas in eastern Kentucky.[38] Many of the women employed by the project were the sole breadwinners for their families.[39]

Criticism[edit]

Poster representing the WPA defending itself from attacks
The WPA had numerous critics, especially from conservatives. The strongest attacks were that it was the prelude for a national political machine on behalf of Roosevelt. Reformers secured the Hatch Act of 1939 that largely depoliticized the WPA.[40]

Others complained that far left elements played a major role, especially in the New York City unit. Representative J. Parnell Thomas of the House Committee on Un-American Activities claimed in 1938 that divisions of the WPA were a "hotbed of Communists" and "one more link in the vast and unparalleled New Deal propaganda network."[41]

Much of the criticism of the distribution of projects and funding allotment is a result of the view that the decisions were politically motivated. The South, as the poorest region of the United States, received 75 percent less in federal relief and public works funds per capita than the West. Critics would point to the fact that Roosevelt’s Democrats could be sure of voting support from the South, whereas the West was less of a sure thing; swing states took priority over the other states.[5]:70

There was a perception that WPA employees were not diligent workers, and that they had little incentive to give up their busy work in favor of productive jobs. Some employers said that the WPA instilled poor work habits and encouraged inefficiency.[42] Some job applicants found that a WPA work history was viewed negatively by employers, who said they had formed poor work habits.[43]

A Senate committee reported that, "To some extent the complaint that WPA workers do poor work is not without foundation. … Poor work habits and incorrect techniques are not remedied. Occasionally a supervisor or a foreman demands good work."[44] The WPA and its workers were ridiculed as being lazy. The organization's initials were said to stand for "We Poke Along" or "We Putter Along" or "We piddle around" or "Whistle, Piss and Argue." These were sarcastic references to WPA projects that sometimes slowed down deliberately because foremen had an incentive to keep going, rather than finish a project.[45]

The WPA's Division of Investigation proved so effective in preventing political corruption "that a later congressional investigation couldn't find a single serious irregularity it had overlooked," wrote economist Paul Krugman. "This dedication to honest government wasn't a sign of Roosevelt's personal virtue; rather, it reflected a political imperative. FDR's mission in office was to show that government activism works. To maintain that mission's credibility he needed to keep his administration's record clean. And he did."[46]

Evolution[edit]

Francis C. Harrington, WPA national administrator 1938–40
On December 23, 1938, after leading the WPA for 3.5 years, Harry Hopkins resigned and became the Secretary of Commerce. To succeed him Roosevelt appointed Francis C. Harrington, a colonel in the Army Corps of Engineers and the WPA's chief engineer, who had been leading the Division of Engineering and Construction.[22]:417–420

Following the passage of the Reorganization Act of 1939 in April 1939, the WPA was grouped with the Bureau of Public Roads, Public Buildings Branch of the Procurement Division, Branch of Buildings Management of the National Park Service, United States Housing Authority and the Public Works Administration under the newly created Federal Works Agency. Created at the same time, the Federal Security Agency assumed the WPA's responsibility for the National Youth Administration. "The name of the Works Progress Administration has been changed to Work Projects Administration in order to make its title more descriptive of its major purpose," President Roosevelt wrote when announcing the reorganization.[47]

As WPA projects became more subject to the state, local sponsors were called on to provide 25% of project costs. As the number of public works projects slowly diminished, more projects were dedicated to preparing for war.[7]:227 Having languished since the end of World War I, the American military services were depopulated and served by crumbling facilities; when Germany occupied Czechoslovakia in 1938, the U.S. Army numbered only 176,000 soldiers.[22]:494


WPA researchers and map makers prepare the air raid warning map for New Orleans within days of the attack on Pearl Harbor (December 11, 1941)
On May 26, 1940, FDR delivered a fireside chat to the American people about "the approaching storm",[48] and on June 6 Harrington reprioritized WPA projects, anticipating a major expansion of the U.S. military. "Types of WPA work to be expedited in every possible way to include, in addition to airports and military airfields, construction of housing and other facilities for enlarged military garrisons, camp and cantonment construction, and various improvements in navy yards," Harrington said. He observed that the WPA had already made substantial contributions to national defense over its five years of existence, by building 85 percent of the new airports in the U.S. and making $420 million in improvements to military facilities. He predicted there would be 500,000 WPA workers on defense-related projects over the next 12 months, at a cost of $250 million.[22]:492–493 The estimated number of WPA workers needed for defense projects was soon revised to between 600,000 and 700,000. Vocational training for war industries was also begun by the WPA, with 50,000 trainees in the program by October 1940.[22]:494

"Only the WPA, having employed millions of relief workers for more than five years, had a comprehensive awareness of the skills that would be available in a full-scale national emergency," wrote journalist Nick Taylor. "As the country began its preparedness buildup, the WPA was uniquely positioned to become a major defense agency."[22]:494–495

Harrington died suddenly, aged 53, on September 30, 1940. Notably apolitical—he boasted that he had never voted[49]—he had deflected Congressional criticism of the WPA by bringing attention to its building accomplishments and its role as an employer.[22]:504 Harrington's successor, Howard O. Hunter, served as head of the WPA until May 1, 1942.[22]:517

Termination[edit]
Unemployment ended with war production for World War II, as millions of men joined the services, and cost-plus contracts made it attractive for companies to hire unemployed men and train them.[22][page needed][31]

Concluding that a national relief program was no longer needed, Roosevelt directed the Federal Works Administrator to end the WPA in a letter December 4, 1942. "Seven years ago I was convinced that providing useful work is superior to any and every kind of dole. Experience had amply justified this policy," FDR wrote:

By building airports, schools, highways, and parks; by making huge quantities of clothing for the unfortunate; by serving millions of lunches to school children; by almost immeasurable kinds and quantities of service the Work Projects Administration has reached a creative hand into every county in this Nation. It has added to the national wealth, has repaired the wastage of depression, and has strengthened the country to bear the burden of war. By employing eight millions of Americans, with thirty millions of dependents, it has brought to these people renewed hope and courage. It has maintained and increased their working skills; and it has enabled them once more to take their rightful places in public or in private employment.[50]

Roosevelt ordered a prompt end to WPA activities to conserve funds that had been appropriated. Operations in most states ended February 1, 1943. With no funds budgeted for the next fiscal year, the WPA ceased to exist after June 30, 1943.[50]

Legacy[edit]
"The agencies of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration had an enormous and largely unrecognized role in defining the public space we now use", wrote sociologist Robert D. Leighninger. "In a short period of ten years, the Public Works Administration, the Works Progress Administration, and the Civilian Conservation Corps built facilities in practically every community in the country. Most are still providing service half a century later. It is time we recognized this legacy and attempted to comprehend its relationship to our contemporary situation."[7]:226


Alabama National Guard Armory, Guntersville, Alabama (1936)

 

Prairie County Courthouse, DeValls Bluff, Arkansas (1939)

 

Griffith Observatory, Los Angeles, California (1933)

 

Santa Ana City Hall, Santa Ana, California (1935)

 

Leon High School, Tallahassee, Florida (1936–37)

 

Government House, St. Augustine, Florida (1937)

 

Fort Hawkins, Macon, Georgia (1936–38)

 

Boise High School Gymnasium, Boise, Idaho (1936)

 

Midway International Airport, Chicago, Illinois (1935–39)

 

Gregg Park Bandshell, Vincennes, Indiana (1939)

 

Canoe house, University of Iowa (1937)

 

Jenkins Culvert, Gove County, Kansas (1938)

 

Louisville Fire Department Headquarters, Louisville, Kentucky (1936)

 

Alvar Street Branch, New Orleans Public Library (1940)

 

WPA Field House and Pump Station, Scituate, Massachusetts (1938)

 

Detroit Naval Armory, Detroit, Michigan (1936–39)

 

Brandon Auditorium and Fire Hall, Brandon, Minnesota (1936)

 

Milaca Municipal Hall, Milaca, Minnesota (1936)

 

Upland Auditorium, Upland, Nebraska (1936)

 

Jackie Robinson Play Center, Harlem, New York (1936)

 

LaGuardia Airport, Queens, New York (1937–39)

 

U.S. Post Office, Rhinebeck, New York (1940)

 

Robeson County Agricultural Building, Lumberton, North Carolina (1937)

 

Emmons County Courthouse, Linton, North Dakota (1934)

 

Rubber Bowl Stadium, Akron, Ohio (1940)

 

Timberline Lodge, Mt. Hood National Forest, Oregon (1936–38)

 

Oregon State Library, Salem, Oregon (1939)

 

Schenley Park, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (1938–39)

 

McCoy Stadium, Pawtucket, Rhode Island (1942)

 

Dock Street Theatre, Charleston, South Carolina (1937)

 

Liberty Colored High School, Liberty, South Carolina (1937)

 

Dinosaur Park, Rapid City, South Dakota (1936)

 

Bristol Municipal Stadium, Bristol, Tennessee (1934)

 

Dealey Plaza, Dallas, Texas (1940)

 

Schoolhouse, Lometa, Texas (1938–40)

 

River Walk, San Antonio, Texas (1939)

 

City Library, Monroe, Utah (1934)

 

Bremerton Public Library, Bremerton, Washington (1938)

 

White Center Fieldhouse, White Center, Washington (1938–40)

 

Raleigh County Courthouse, Beckley, West Virginia (1936–37)

 

Carson Park Baseball Stadium, Eau Claire, Wisconsin (1937)

 

Mondeaux Lodge House, Westboro, Wisconsin (1936–38)

 

Natrona County High School, Casper, Wyoming (1941)

See also[edit]
American Guide Series
Federal Art Project
Federal Project Number One
Hatch Act of 1939
List of Federal Art Project artists
Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt
Public Works of Art Project
Section of Painting and Sculpture, in Treasury department
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Arnesen, Eric (2007). Encyclopedia of U.S. Labor and Working-Class History. 1. New York: Routledge. p. 1540. ISBN 9780415968263.
Jump up ^ Smith, Jason Scott (2006). Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy of Public Works, 1933–1956. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 87. ISBN 9780521828055.
Jump up ^ "WPA Pays Up and Quits". The New York Times. July 1, 1943. Retrieved 2016-02-24.
Jump up ^ Works Progress Administration (1936). "WPA Workers' Handbook". New Deal Network. Retrieved 2016-02-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Lee, Bradford A. (Spring 1982). "The New Deal Reconsidered". The Wilson Quarterly. 6 (2): 62–76. JSTOR 40256265.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Leighninger, Robert D. (2007). Long-Range Public Investment: The Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 9781570036637.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Leighninger, Robert D. (May 1996). "Cultural Infrastructure: The Legacy of New Deal Public Space". Journal of Architectural Education. 49 (4): 226–236. JSTOR 1425295.
Jump up ^ "Text of Relief Bill Offered in House". The New York Times. January 22, 1935. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Presidential Key Events, Franklin D. Roosevelt". Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Work Projects Administration and Its Predecessors". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-28.
Jump up ^ Roosevelt, Franklin D. (May 6, 1935). "Executive Order 7034 – Creating Machinery for the Works Progress Administration". The American Presidency Project. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ Deeben, John P. (Fall 2012). "Family Experiences and New Deal Relief: The Correspondence Files of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, 1933–1936". Prologue Magazine. Vol. 44 no. 2. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ Flanagan, Hallie (1965). Arena: The History of the Federal Theatre. New York: Benjamin Blom, reprint edition [1940]. OCLC 855945294.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Division of Engineering and Construction". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Division of Professional and Service Projects". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Division of Finance". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Division of Information". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Division of Investigation". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Division of Statistics". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of the Project Control Divisions". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
Jump up ^ "Records of Other WPA Divisions". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Taylor, Nick (2008). American-Made: The Enduring Legacy of the WPA, When FDR Put the Nation to Work. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 9780553802351.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Howard, Donald S. (1973) [1943]. The WPA and Federal Relief Policy. New York: Da Capo Press. OCLC 255072517.
Jump up ^ "WPA Employment." Gjenvick Archives: The Future of Our Past, Social and Cultural History. (2000)
Jump up ^ "Records of WPA Projects". Records of the Work Projects Administration (WPA). National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2016-02-25.
Jump up ^ Kennedy, David M. (1999). Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195038347.
Jump up ^ "Website on Merritt Parkway Bridges". Past-inc.org. Retrieved 2012-04-20.
Jump up ^ "WPA and Rural Libraries". Newdeal.feri.org. Retrieved 2012-04-20.[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Blazing the Way: The WPA Library Service Demonstration Project in South Carolina by Robert M. Gorman" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-15. Retrieved 2012-04-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Adams, Don; Goldbard, Arlene (1995). "New Deal Cultural Programs: Experiments in Cultural Democracy". Webster's World of Cultural Democracy. Retrieved 2016-02-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Larson, Cedric (July 1939). "The Cultural Projects of the WPA". Public Opinion Quarterly. 3 (3): 491–496. JSTOR 2744973.
^ Jump up to: a b John Salmond, "The New Deal and the Negro" in John Braeman et al., eds. The New Deal: The National Level (1975). pp 188–89
Jump up ^ Charles L. Lumpkins (2008). American Pogrom: The East St. Louis Race Riot and Black Politics. Ohio University Press. p. 179.
Jump up ^ Cheryl Lynn Greenberg (2009). To Ask for an Equal Chance: African Americans in the Great Depression. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 60.
Jump up ^ Anthony J. Badger (2011). New Deal / New South: An Anthony J. Badger Reader. U. of Arkansas Press. p. 38.
Jump up ^ Dickens, Bethany (November 18, 2014). "Episode 32 Tapestries". A History of Central Florida. Retrieved January 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Pack Horse Librarians of Eastern Kentucky". Horse Canada. Retrieved 2017-09-01.
Jump up ^ Boyd, Donald C. (2007). "The Book Women of Kentucky: The WPA Pack Horse Library Project, 1936-1943". Libraries & the Cultural Record. 42 (2): 120 – via Project MUSE. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Alexander Keyssar, The right to vote: the contested history of democracy in the United States (2000) p 193
Jump up ^ Gina Misiroglu, ed. (2015). American Countercultures: An Encyclopedia of Nonconformists, Alternative Lifestyles, and Radical Ideas in U.S. History. Routledge. p. 334.
Jump up ^ Ginzberg, Eli (2004) [1943]. The Unemployed. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers. p. 447. ISBN 9780765805744.
Jump up ^ Wood, Margaret Mary (1953). Paths of Loneliness: The Individual Isolated in Modern Society. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 61. OCLC 620533.
Jump up ^ Report of investigation of public relief in the District of Columbia (U.S. Senate), (1938)
Jump up ^ David A. Taylor, Soul of a people: the WPA Writer's Project uncovers Depression America (2009) p 12
Jump up ^ Krugman, Paul (2007). The Conscience of a Liberal. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 62. ISBN 9780393060690.
Jump up ^ Roosevelt, Franklin D. (April 15, 1939). "Message to Congress on the Reorganization Act". The American Presidency Project. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley. Retrieved 2015-06-29.
Jump up ^ Roosevelt, Franklin D. "Fireside Chat 15: On National Defense (May 26, 1940)". Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved 2016-02-25.
Jump up ^ Associated Press (October 1, 1940). "WPA Head Dies in Connecticut". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2016-02-25.
^ Jump up to: a b Roosevelt, Franklin D. (December 4, 1942). "Letter to the Federal Works Administrator Discontinuing the W.P.A". The American Presidency Project. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley. Retrieved 2015-06-23.
Further reading[edit]
Adams, Don; Goldbard, Arlene. "New Deal Cultural Programs: Experiments in Cultural Democracy." Webster's World of Cultural Democracy 1995.
Halfmann, Drew, and Edwin Amenta. "Who voted with Hopkins? Institutional politics and the WPA." Journal of Policy History 13#2 (2001): 251–287. online
Hopkins, June. "The Road Not Taken: Harry Hopkins and New Deal Work Relief" Presidential Studies Quarterly 29#2 (1999): 306–16 online
Howard, Donald S. WPA and federal relief policy (1943), 880pp; highly detailed report by the independent Russell Sage Foundation.
Kelly, Andrew, Kentucky by Design: The Decorative Arts, American Culture and the Arts Programs of the WPA. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. 2015.
Larson, Cedric. "The Cultural Projects of the WPA." The Public Opinion Quarterly 3#3 (1939): 491–196. Accessed in JSTOR
Leighninger, Robert D. "Cultural Infrastructure: The Legacy of New Deal Public Space." Journal of Architectural Education 49, no. 4 (1996): 226–236.
Leighninger, Robert D., Jr. Long-Range Public Investment: the Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press (2007).
Lindley, Betty Grimes & Lindley, Ernest K. A New Deal for Youth: the Story of the National Youth Administration (1938)
McJimsey George T. Harry Hopkins: Ally of the Poor and Defender of Democracy (1987)
Meriam; Lewis. Relief and Social Security. 900 pp. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1946.
Millett; John D. & Gladys Ogden. Administration of Federal Work Relief 1941.
Musher, Sharon Ann. Democratic Art: The New Deal's Influence on American Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015.
Rose, Nancy. The WPA and Public Employment in the Great Depression (2009)
Sargent, James E. "Woodrum's Economy Bloc: The Attack on Roosevelt's WPA, 1937–1939." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography (1985): 175–207. in JSTOR
Sheppard, Si. Buying of the Presidency?, The: Franklin D. Roosevelt, the New Deal, and the Election of 1936 (ABC-CLIO, 2014).
Singleton, Jeff. The American Dole: Unemployment Relief and the Welfare State in the Great Depression (2000)
Smith, Jason Scott. Building New Deal Liberalism: the Political Economy of Public Works, 1933–1956 (2005)
Taylor, David A. Soul of a People: The WPA Writers' Project Uncovers Depression America. (2009)
Taylor, Nick. American-Made: The Enduring Legacy of the WPA: When FDR Put the Nation to Work (2008)
United States Senate. "Report of investigation of public relief in the District of Columbia". Washington D.C.: 1938
Williams, Edward Ainsworth. Federal aid for relief (1939)
Young, William H., & Nancy K. The Great Depression in America: a Cultural Encyclopedia. 2 vols. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2007 ISBN 0-313-33520-6
External links[edit]
	Wikimedia Commons has media related to Works Progress Administration.
	Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Executive Order 7034
John C. Kennedy Papers. 1912–1938. 5" linear (circa 80 items).
Footage of the Federal Theatre Project's 1936 "Voodoo Macbeth" – with informative annotations.
The Great Depression in Washington State Project, including an illustrated map of major WPA projects and a multimedia history of the Federal Theater Project in the State.
The Index of American Design at the National Gallery of Art
Works by Work Projects Administration at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Works Progress Administration at Internet Archive
Works by Works Progress Administration at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) 
Guide to the WPA Oregon Federal Art Project collection at the University of Oregon
WPA inspired Gulf Coast Civic Works Project
An Introduction to the Employer of Last Resort Proposal from Dollars & Sense. Includes several images from the original WPA.
Living New Deal Project – The Living New Deal Project documents the living legacy of New Deal agencies, including the WPA. The Living New Deal website includes an extensive digital map featuring detailed information about specific WPA projects by location.
New Deal Agencies: The Works Progress Administration
Soul of a People documentary on Smithsonian Networks
Works Progress Administration Tampa Office Records at the University of South Florida
Arizona Archives Online Finding Aid – The Arizona State Museum Library & Archives holds the records of the WPA Statewide Archaeological Project (1938–1940) and are found on AAO.
WPA Art Inventory Project at the Connecticut State Library
WPA Omaha, Nebraska City Guide Project by the University of Nebraska Omaha Dr. C.C. and Mabel L. Criss Library.
WPA publications from Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, North Carolina, and Tennessee housed at the University of Kentucky Libraries Special Collections Research Center
Tapestries at A History of Central Florida Podcast
WPA digital collection at the New York Public Library
WPA Music Manuscripts at Wayne State University Library is a digitization project that contains 174 images of WPA music copies from 1935–1943.
WPA posters:

Posters from the WPA at the Library of Congress
Libraries and the WPA:

The WPA Library Project in South Carolina
South Carolina Public Library History, 1930–1945
WPA Children’s Books (1935–1943) Broward County Library’s Bienes Museum of the Modern Book
WPA murals:

Database of WPA murals
WPA-FAP Mural Division in NYC, and restoration of murals at the Williamsburg Houses and Hospital for Chronic Diseases on Welfare Island
WPA mural projects by noted muralist Sr. Lucia Wiley
WPA Artist Louis Schanker
WPA Artist Robert Tabor
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Works Progress Administration
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New Deal
Categories: Works Progress AdministrationNew Deal agenciesDefunct agencies of the United States governmentHistory of the United States governmentFormer United States Federal assistance programs1935 establishments in Washington, D.C.Government agencies established in 1935Government agencies disestablished in 19431943 disestablishments in Washington, D.C.Great Depression in the United States
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This page was last edited on 16 January 2018, at 22:40.
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