diff --git a/source/parser/op.civet b/source/parser/op.civet
index 3529e8e5..44fa27ce 100644
--- a/source/parser/op.civet
+++ b/source/parser/op.civet
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import type {
 } from ./types.civet
 
 import {
+  assert
   makeLeftHandSideExpression
   replaceNode
   trimFirstSpace
@@ -15,6 +16,10 @@ import {
   processPatternTest
 } from ./pattern-matching.civet
 
+import {
+  maybeRefAssignment
+} from ./ref.civet
+
 // Binary operator precedence, from low to high
 // See https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Operators/Operator_precedence#table
 // NOTE: Added ^^ between || and &&, just like ^ is between | and &
@@ -285,7 +290,7 @@ function expandChainedComparisons([first, binops]: [ASTNode, [ASTNode, BinaryOp,
   return results
 
   function processChains: void
-    if chains.length > 0
+    if chains# > 0
       // At least one relational op, so expand any existence operators `x?`
       first = expandExistence first
       for each index, k of chains
@@ -297,28 +302,41 @@ function expandChainedComparisons([first, binops]: [ASTNode, [ASTNode, BinaryOp,
         exp := binop[3] = expandExistence binop[3]
 
         results.push first
-        endIndex := chains[k + 1] ?? i + 1
-        results.push ...binops[start...endIndex].flat()
-        // TODO: add refs to ensure middle expressions are evaluated only once
-        // NOTE: This first gets discarded if we're in the last iteration of the chain
-        first = [exp] ++ binops[index + 1...endIndex]
-        start = endIndex
+        // If there's more to the chain, ref the right-hand side of this
+        // relation (which is the left-hand side of the next op)
+        if k+1 < chains#
+          endIndex := chains[k + 1]
+          rhs :=
+            index + 1 < endIndex ? [exp] ++ binops[index + 1...endIndex] : exp
+          { ref, refAssignment } := maybeRefAssignment rhs
+          // TODO: do we need to recurse on the binary ops here?
+          binops[index][3] = makeLeftHandSideExpression refAssignment ?? rhs
+          results.push ...binops[start...index + 1].flat()
+          first = ref
+          start = endIndex
+        else
+          results.push ...binops[start...i + 1].flat()
     else
       // Advance start if there was no chain
       results.push first
       results.push ...binops[start...i + 1].flat()
-      start = i + 1
+    start = i + 1
 
     chains.length = 0
 
   function expandExistence(exp: ASTNode): ASTNode
     // Expand existence operator like x?
     if existence := isExistence(exp)
+      { ref, refAssignment } := maybeRefAssignment existence.expression
+      if refAssignment?
+        replaceNode
+          existence.expression
+          makeLeftHandSideExpression refAssignment
+          existence
       results.push existence, " ", chainOp, " "
-      existence.expression
+      ref
     else
       exp
-  ; // avoid implicit return of hoisted function
 
 export {
   getPrecedence
diff --git a/source/parser/ref.civet b/source/parser/ref.civet
index 44ca1432..a06389c6 100644
--- a/source/parser/ref.civet
+++ b/source/parser/ref.civet
@@ -35,6 +35,7 @@ function needsRef(expression: ASTNode, base = "ref"): ASTRef | undefined
     case "Ref":
     case "Identifier":
     case "Literal":
+    case "Placeholder":
       return
   }
   return makeRef(base)
diff --git a/source/parser/types.civet b/source/parser/types.civet
index 827639f3..312aaba9 100644
--- a/source/parser/types.civet
+++ b/source/parser/types.civet
@@ -194,7 +194,6 @@ export type BinaryOp = (string &
 ) | (ChainOp &
   token?: never
   relational?: never
-  assoc?: never
 )
 
 export type NonNullAssertion
@@ -214,6 +213,7 @@ export type ChainOp
   type: "ChainOp"
   special: true
   prec: number
+  assoc: string
   children?: never
   parent?: never
 
diff --git a/source/parser/util.civet b/source/parser/util.civet
index 43a6acba..5dfcb518 100644
--- a/source/parser/util.civet
+++ b/source/parser/util.civet
@@ -456,8 +456,8 @@ function deepCopy<T extends ASTNode>(root: T): T
 /**
  * Replace this node with another, by modifying its parent's children.
  */
-function replaceNode(node: ASTNodeObject, newNode: ASTNode, parent?: ASTNodeParent): void
-  parent ??= node.parent
+function replaceNode(node: ASTNode, newNode: ASTNode, parent?: ASTNodeParent): void
+  parent ??= (node as ASTNodeObject?)?.parent
   unless parent?
     throw new Error "replaceNode failed: node has no parent"
 
diff --git a/test/binary-op.civet b/test/binary-op.civet
index 8c5b56bc..d7952baf 100644
--- a/test/binary-op.civet
+++ b/test/binary-op.civet
@@ -366,7 +366,7 @@ describe "binary operations", ->
     ---
     a+b is in c*d is in e%f+g
     ---
-    (c*d).includes(a+b) && (e%f+g).includes(c*d)
+    let ref;(ref = c*d).includes(a+b) && (e%f+g).includes(ref)
   """
 
   testCase """
diff --git a/test/chained-comparisons.civet b/test/chained-comparisons.civet
index 8e6ebe53..b3bc5710 100644
--- a/test/chained-comparisons.civet
+++ b/test/chained-comparisons.civet
@@ -24,15 +24,15 @@ describe "chained comparisons", ->
     ---
     a + b < c + d < e + f
     ---
-    a + b < c + d && c + d < e + f
+    let ref;a + b < (ref = c + d) && ref < e + f
   """
 
   testCase """
-    higher precedence
+    more higher precedence
     ---
     a + b + x + y < c + d < e + f
     ---
-    a + b + x + y < c + d && c + d < e + f
+    let ref;a + b + x + y < (ref = c + d) && ref < e + f
   """
 
   testCase """
@@ -68,9 +68,11 @@ describe "chained comparisons", ->
     ---
     (a < b) < c
     (a + b) < (c + d) < (e + f)
+    (a < b) < c
     ---
-    (a < b) < c;
-    (a + b) < (c + d) && (c + d) < (e + f)
+    (a < b) < c
+    let ref;(a + b) < (ref = (c + d)) && ref < (e + f);
+    (a < b) < c
   """
 
   testCase """